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Article

Substitution of Pork Fat with Beeswax-Structured Oleogels in Semi-Smoked Sausages

by
Aidyn Igenbayev
1,*,
Gulnazym Ospankulova
1,
Shyngys Amirkhanov
1,
Akmaral Aldiyeva
1,
Indira Temirova
1 and
Kumarbek Amirkhanov
2
1
Department of Food Technology and Processing Products, S. Seifullin Kazakh Agrotechnical University, Zhenis Ave 62, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
2
Department of Food Technology and Biotechnology, Shakarim University of Semey, 20A Glinki Street, Semey 071412, Kazakhstan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(9), 5312; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13095312
Submission received: 9 March 2023 / Revised: 18 April 2023 / Accepted: 18 April 2023 / Published: 24 April 2023
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Abstract

:
The expansion of the assortment of low-saturated-fat sausages is a trend in healthy eating, and the use of alternative ways to reduce their saturated fat content is required. This study aimed to partially substitute pork fat with 7% and 10% oleogel, obtained by structuring sunflower oil with a two-component mixture of monoglyceride and beeswax, in the recipe for semi-smoked sausage. The physicochemical characteristics of the sausages were evaluated, and the fatty acid profile and sensory properties were analyzed. In the samples where pork fat was partially replaced with oleogel at 7% and 10%, there was a decrease in the content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) by 35% and 38%, respectively. The addition of oleogel to sausages significantly reduced the content of stearic and palmitic acid, increased the content of linoleic acid, and improved the fatty acid profile. The microstructure of the sausages showed a more homogeneous structure with a lower content of large lipid granules as the amount of oleogel added increased. The sensory analysis showed that the addition of 7% oleogel did not deteriorate the organoleptic properties. Therefore, the partial substitution of pork fat with 7% oleogel can be recommended to produce healthy sausages with improved fatty acid profile and sensory properties.

1. Introduction

Sausages are a popular food choice among the population of the Republic of Kazakhstan. However, the high-fat content, especially saturated fatty acids, in sausages is a growing concern for public health. The adverse health effects associated with the regular intake of these high-fat meat products have been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, obesity, and other chronic health conditions [1,2].
Fats not only serve as an important energy source, but they also play a crucial role in determining the organoleptic and rheological properties of the final food product [3,4]. The World Health Organization recommends limiting the intake of dietary fats to 15–30% of the total daily energy intake, while keeping saturated fat intake to no more than 10% and the remaining portion consisting of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids [5]. Given that diet is one of the key determinants of lifespan, the number of people who adhere to healthy eating practices and follow WHO’s guidelines continues to increase annually [6].
Currently, there is an increasing demand for processed meat products. Among the most popular processed meat products that are in demand by the population are semi-smoked sausages, which are distinguished by their high quality, spicy taste, and extended shelf life. However, they may contain up to 30% animal fats in their composition [7]. Animal fat has been linked to several negative health effects, including an increased risk of heart disease, obesity, and certain types of cancer. Meat products high in animal fat are also associated with high levels of saturated and trans fats, which can raise cholesterol levels in the blood and increase the risk of heart disease [8]. In addition, animal fat can be high in calories and can contribute to weight gain when consumed in excess. As a result, many consumers are seeking alternative sources of fat in meat products, such as plant-based oils and fats, as well as structured oil gels, to help reduce the negative impact of animal fat on their health [9,10].
Numerous studies have been conducted on reducing the fat content in sausages. One of the methods involves the partial replacement of animal fats with vegetable oils, which reduces the amount of saturated fatty acids and increases the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids [11,12]. However, there are disadvantages of direct enrichment with vegetable oils that cause organoleptic and technological problems with the texture of the finished meat product [13].
Recently, one of the new and promising methods for reducing saturated fats in meat products is the use of oleogels [14,15,16]. Oleogels are derived from various vegetable oils (such as sunflower, corn oil, etc.) [17,18] with different structurants to give them the necessary textural characteristics (hardness) and desired organoleptic properties in combination with a healthy fatty acid profile [19,20].
A large number of structurants have been studied for their ability to structure oils, including monoglycerides [21], waxes [22], phytosterols [23], a mixture of wax, β-sitosterol, and γ-oryzanol [24], ethyl cellulose [25], a mixture of monoglycerides and phytosterols [26,27], and a mixture of monoglycerides and waxes [28,29]. Structured oleogels containing a mixture of monoglycerides and wax form crystalline networks in the form of plates and small needles, which give them improved textural properties and strong bonds to retain the oil in the crystalline network, facilitating their use in meat products [30,31].
Research on the impact of oleogels on various properties of meat products is ongoing and highly relevant. In particular, studies have been conducted on the replacement of natural fats with oleogels in bologna sausages [32], Frankfurt sausages [33], beef sausages [34,35], and other meat products.
Beeswax is a common ingredient in the production of oleogels. Beeswax can be used in oleogels as a structuring agent because it has the ability to solidify oils at room temperature and create a smooth, creamy texture [36,37]. In addition to its structural properties, beeswax can also enhance the flavor and aroma of the oleogel, giving it a subtle honey-like taste and aroma that can be appealing to consumers. Beeswax oleogels are also a natural and sustainable alternative to synthetic emulsifiers and stabilizers, which are commonly used in the food industry. Overall, the use of beeswax in oleogels is a promising area of research and development for the food industry, as it can offer a healthier, more sustainable, and flavorful alternative to traditional solid fats [38,39].
Beeswax was utilized as an ingredient for the production of oleogels in several research papers, including those by Gao et al. (2021) [40], Gómez-Estaca et al. (2019) [41], and Moghtadaei et al. (2018) [42], which investigated its efficacy as a substitute for animal fat in meat products such as beef heart patties and burgers.
Monoglycerides are a type of lipid, which are organic molecules that are insoluble in water and play important roles in energy storage, cellular structure, and signaling [43]. Monoglycerides can be found naturally in some foods, such as dairy products, eggs, and certain oils. They are also commonly used as food additives and emulsifiers in processed foods, where they can help improve texture, stability, and shelf life. Monoglycerides are commonly used in the food industry to improve the quality and consistency of baked goods, dairy products, margarine, and other processed foods [44,45].
The purpose of this study is to investigate the reduction of saturated fat content in semi-smoked sausages made from beef, horse, and chicken meat through the partial replacement of pork fat with oleogels based on sunflower oil and a two-component mixture (monoglyceride (MG) and beeswax (BW)).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

To prepare oleogels, domestically produced sunflower oil, the most consumed and utilized oil in the Republic of Kazakhstan, was used. As a structurant, beeswax obtained from a beekeeping farm of Katon-Karagay in Eastern Kazakhstan was utilized. The main characteristics of the beeswax were: melting point—72 °C, color—light yellow, smell—natural, waxy.
The monoglyceride used was produced by Kerry Ingredients MSDN. BHD., Malaysia, with a minimum monoglyceride content of 95.0%, an acid value not exceeding 3.0 mg KOH/g, and an iodine value not exceeding 3.0 g I2/100 g.
The meat was purchased from a livestock farm located in Central Kazakhstan. All the spices were acquired from “Almi” Company (Oftering, Austria). The semi-smoked sausages were produced in an experimental production workshop at the S. Seifullin Kazakh Agrotechnical University.

2.2. Methodology

2.2.1. Oleogel Preparation

The oleogels were prepared according to the methodology presented in a previous study [39] with some modifications. Sunflower oil (in an amount of 80% of the oleogel mass) was heated to 85 °C, followed by the addition of a mixture of structuring agents (20%). The ratio of the structuring agent (monoglyceride:wax) was 2:1, which was selected based on preliminary studies evaluating the stability and consistency of the oleogels.
The process was carried out in a laboratory chemical reactor LR 1000 (IKA Werke GmbH Co, Staufen, Germany) equipped with an overhead stirrer at a temperature of 90–95 °C for 60 min, with continuous stirring at 150 rpm. The oleogels were then cooled and held at a temperature of 4 °C for 24 h to stabilize the desired structure. The process of preparing the oleogel is illustrated in Figure 1.

2.2.2. Sausage Preparation

Three semi-smoked sausage treatments were prepared using the following replacements of pork fat: (1) control (without oleogel), (2) experimental sample replacing 7% of pork fat with oleogel (OG7), and (3) experimental sample replacing 10% of pork fat with oleogel (OG10) (Table 1).
The process of manufacturing semi-smoked sausages involved the use of beef and horse meat, as well as poultry meat. Before casing, the meat was trimmed of any marks, impurities, and bruises. Deboning of the meat was carried out by the traditional manual method, in which muscular, connective, and fatty tissues were separated from the bones. The meat raw material was then subjected to meat trimming. During trimming, the beef and horse meat were freed from coarse connective tissues, tendons, cartilage, and films, and cut into pieces. The meat was then subjected to salting (salt mixture) at a temperature of 2–4 °C for 12 h. After the time elapsed, the meat was minced through a meat grinder with a plate with hole diameters of 3–5 mm and mixed with the remaining additives and spices to prepare the meat batter.
Next, oleogels were added during the meat batter mixing process. The total duration of meat batter preparation was 8–10 min, at a speed of mixing of 80 rpm. The meat batter was then stuffed into casings to form sausages with a length of 50 mm, followed by sausage tying, hanging on sticks, and placing the sticks with sausages on racks.
The settling (hanging) process took place at a temperature of 2–4 °C, for a duration of 6 h, and at a relative humidity of 85% in special chambers. During the settling period, bonds between the meat particles are restored, and reactions related to stabilizing the color take place. The casing is dried, ensuring a good appearance of the final product after frying.
The thermal treatment involved the frying of sausages at a temperature of 90 ± 5 °C for 60–90 min. The temperature at the center of the sausage should not exceed 45 °C after frying. After frying, the sausages were directed to boiling. The gap between frying and boiling should not exceed 30 min. The fried sausages were boiled using steam or water at a temperature of 80 ± 5 °C until the center temperature of the product reached 72 °C, which took approximately 40–80 min. Then, the meat product was smoked at a temperature of 22 ± 3 °C for 6–12 h. The sausages were then cooled using a water shower for 10 min and subsequently dried at a temperature of 10–12 °C with 72% relative humidity for 24 h in a conditioned environment. Experimental samples of semi-smoked sausages are shown in Figure 2.

2.2.3. Physicochemical Parameters and pH

The moisture content, protein, ash, and fat were determined in accordance with ISO standards [46,47,48,49]. To determine the moisture content in the samples, the samples were dried at 105 °C in ovens until a constant weight was achieved, and the loss of moisture was determined. The determination of the protein content using the Kjeldahl method was performed by mineralizing the organic substances of the sample followed by the determination of the nitrogen content based on the amount of ammonia formed.
The determination of the total ash content is based on the combustion of the sample at a temperature of (550 ± 25) °C and the calculation of the mass of the residue consisting of mineral substances obtained as a result of ashing. The fat content in the sausage was determined by extracting the total fat contained in the sausage with hexane at a boiling temperature of 50–60 °C in a Soxhlet extraction apparatus.
The carbohydrate content was calculated per 100 g of the sample by subtracting the moisture, fat, protein, and ash content. The estimated caloric value (kcal/100 g) was calculated from the caloric equivalent of fat (9.00 kcal/g), protein (4.02 kcal/g), and carbohydrates (3.87 kcal/g).
The pH of the samples was measured 48 h after sausage production using a portable pH meter (HI 221, Hanna Instruments, Vöhringen, Germany). To determine the pH, 20 g of the sausage was homogenized with 80 mL of distilled water. All pH measurements were conducted in multiple replicates.

2.2.4. Fatty Acid Determination

The lipid extraction in the sample was performed using the Folch method [50]. This method allows for the extraction of 90–95% of all cellular lipids. The lipid extraction was carried out using a mixture of hexane and ethanol (2:1). Homogenization of 50 g of each sample was conducted by grinding it in a porcelain mortar using a pestle.
After placing a homogenized sample into a 500 mL flask, solvents are added, including 200 mL of hexane and 100 mL of ethanol to precipitate proteins and extract fatty acids and their trans isomers. The flask with the sample and solvents is placed on a shaker and mixed thoroughly at 180 rpm for 3–4 h, which allows for extraction. The resulting supernatant is then evaporated in a water bath at 70 °C. The resulting solution can then be subjected to acid-catalyzed esterification to obtain the corresponding fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs). After evaporation, the sample is transferred to an Eppendorf tube and placed in a freezer for analysis.
The fatty acid composition was determined using gas chromatography on an Agilent 6890N gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) equipped with a flame ionization detector (Agilent Technologies, USA). The column was a CPTM-Sil 88 (Chrompack, Middelburg, The Netherlands) 100 m in length, 0.25 mm i.d., and 0.2 μm in film thickness. The temperature of the injector and detector was set at 250 °C. The carrier gas is hydrogen at a flow rate of 1 mL/min.

2.2.5. Microstructure Analysis

The microstructure of meat samples was observed on a low vacuum scanning electron microscope «JSM-6390LV JEOL» (Tokyo, Japan). Samples were prepared according to Rao, M.V. et al. [51].

2.2.6. Sensory Analysis

Sensory analysis was conducted by trained 20 panelists from Seifullin Kazakh Agrotechnical University. The testing was carried out in a room equipped with individual tasting booths, under white light, in accordance with ISO procedures [52]. During the sensory evaluation of the sausages, panelists evaluate various sensory parameters such as odor, taste, texture, and appearance using a five-point hedonic scale, with experts providing an overall acceptability score ranging from 1 (disliked extremely) to 5 (liked extremely). By evaluating these sensory parameters, panelists can provide a comprehensive assessment of the quality and acceptability of the sausages.

2.2.7. Statistical Analysis

The data collected during the measurements were analyzed using a one-way analysis of variance ANOVA test. Differences between treatments in the ANOVA were identified using Tukey’s test (significance level p < 0.05). The results are considered statistically significant at p ≤ 0.05. Data are presented as mean values ± standard deviation (SD).
All analyses were conducted using the statistical software Minitab 16 (Minitab Inc., State College, PA, USA).
In this study, three separate batches of each formulation of sausage were prepared and triplicate analyses were conducted on each sample.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physicochemical Characteristics of Semi-Smoked Sausages

The chemical composition of the oleogel contains: 98.4 g/100 g fat, 0.59 g/100 g protein, 0.82 g/100 g carbohydrates, 0.13 g/100 g ash, and 0.06 g/100 g water. The energy value is 3728 kJ/100 g. The nutritional profile of the oleogel indicates that it is a high-energy food, with a relatively low protein and carbohydrate content. This suggests that it may be more appropriate for use in products where energy density is a key consideration, such as high-calorie supplements or energy bars, rather than as a primary ingredient in everyday food products [53,54].
The high fat content of the oleogel makes it suitable for use in many food formulations, including baked goods, spreads, and dressings, while the low water content can help to extend the shelf life of products. The fatty acid composition of the oleogel is presented in Table 2.
The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are the most abundant fatty acids in the oleogel, comprising 62.611% of the total fatty acid content. The main PUFA is C 18:2n6c linoleic acid, which represents 99.3% of the PUFA content. Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) are present in a lower amount than PUFAs, accounting for 17.248% of the total fatty acid content. The main MUFA is C 18:1 (cis-9) oleic acid, representing 99.7% of the MUFA content. Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are the least abundant fatty acids in the oleogel, accounting for 20.141% of the total fatty acid content. The main SFA is C 16:0 palmitic acid, representing 60.4% of the SFA content. The oleogel has a high PUFAs/SFAs ratio, which is desirable for a healthy diet. High PUFA/SFA ratios have been associated with reduced risks of cardiovascular disease and other health benefits. Overall, the fatty acid composition of the oleogel appears to be beneficial for health, with high levels of PUFAs and a high PUFAs/SFAs ratio.
The physicochemical characteristics of semi-smoked sausages are presented in Table 3 for both the control and experimental samples. The statistical analysis conducted revealed no significant differences in the physicochemical properties. According to the data presented, the samples of sausages with 7% and 10% replacement of pork fat with oleogel showed an increase in moisture content by 3.56% and 2.78%, respectively. Partial replacement of pork fat with oleogel by 7% and 10% reduced the mass fraction of fat by 1.46% and 1.61%, respectively. No significant changes were observed in the mass fraction of protein, carbohydrates, and ash content. These findings can be attributed to the fact that the number of ingredients in all recipes of semi-smoked sausages was practically the same, except for the replacement of 7% and 10% of pork fat with oleogel in the experimental samples, which led to a slight reduction in the mass fraction of fat.
The obtained physicochemical data are in agreement with previous studies conducted on Bologna sausages and frankfurter sausages [55,56]. However, a slight increase in the mass fraction of moisture was observed, in contrast to the studies described by the aforementioned authors.
The pH value of the sausages varied from 6.08 to 6.17. The experimental sausages with oleogels showed a slight deviation in pH value compared to the control sample (p < 0.05). Other studies on the partial replacement of pork fat with structured vegetable oils in meat products also did not show significant variations in pH [33,55,57].

3.2. Fatty Acid Composition of Semi-Smoked Sausages

In the recipe for sausage, pork fat was replaced with oleogel at a quantity of 7% (OG7) and 10% (OG10). The addition of oleogel in sausage products significantly reduces (p < 0.05) the amount of stearic acid from 14.422% (control) to 6.691% (OG10) and 6.312% (OG7) for products containing saturated fatty acids (Table 4). Furthermore, substituting pork fat with oleogel reduces the amount of palmitic acid to 18.10% (OG7) and 16.896% (OG10) as compared to the control at 24.285% (p < 0.05). High intake of palmitic and stearic acid is linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes. This is because palmitic acid is a saturated fatty acid, which can increase levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in the blood, also known as “bad” cholesterol. High levels of LDL cholesterol have been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, including heart attacks and stroke [58,59]. In the control sample, oleic acid significantly predominates (p < 0.05) among the monounsaturated fatty acids, accounting for 43.272% of the total. In sausage products with oleogel, the amount of oleic acid decreased to 23.867% in OG7 and 22.988% in OG10. Furthermore, the proportion of C20:1 (cis-11) eicosenoic acid is significantly reduced (p < 0.05).
The addition of oleogel to sausages from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) significantly increased (p < 0.05) the content of linoleic acid. If the control sample had 12.372% of this acid, then in the OG7 sample it increased to 45.293%, and in the OG10 sample, it increased to 47.887%. Linoleic acid may have several potential health benefits. It has been shown to help lower LDL cholesterol levels, which can reduce the risk of heart disease. It also plays a role in maintaining healthy skin, hair, and nails [60,61]. The results of the study indicate that substituting pork fat with oleogel can have a significant impact on the fatty acid composition of sausages (Figure 3). Oleogel is a fat replacer that can provide a healthier fatty acid profile by reducing the amount of saturated fatty acids, such as stearic and palmitic acids, which have been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
The partial incorporation of oleogels had a significant impact on the fatty acid profile. It was found that partial replacement led to an improvement in the fatty acid profile, with a decrease in the content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) from 40.89% in the control sausage to 26.37% when 7% of pork fat was replaced by oleogel, and to 25.27% when 10% was replaced (p < 0.05). The ratio of polyunsaturated (PUFA) to monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) increased. Similar reductions have been observed in previous studies [24,57]. Substituting beef tallow with HPMC oleogels proved highly efficient in reducing the saturated to unsaturated fat ratio from 0.73 to 0.18, leading to the creation of meat patties that exhibit enhanced nutritional qualities [62].
The obtained results may suggest a lower content of saturated fatty acids (SFA) in sunflower oil than in pork fat. It should be noted that reducing the content of SFA is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). The WHO recommends that individuals limit their intake of SFAs to less than 10% of their total energy intake to reduce the risk of noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular disease [63].

3.3. Microstructure of Semi-Smoked Sausages

The microstructure images of the obtained semi-smoked sausage samples are presented in Figure 4. The presented data show that the control sample has porosity and large granules, consistent with previous studies [35,64]. As the amount of oleogel added increases, a more homogeneous structure with lower content of large lipid granules is observed. Sample OG7 showed a structure that is most similar to the control sample of the semi-smoked sausage, making it the most preferable.

3.4. Sensory Characteristics of Semi-Smoked Sausages

The results of the sensory evaluation showed that the experimental samples OG7 and OG10 had an attractive appearance when sliced, with a homogeneous texture and a red-pink color without any gray spots, which was uniform throughout the volume of the sausages. The aroma was pleasant and characteristic of semi-smoked sausages, and the taste was also typical of semi-smoked sausages. The sensory analysis of the produced sausages showed that the addition of oleogel in the amount of 7% does not deteriorate the organoleptic properties. However, increasing the oleogel to 10% leads to a deterioration in texture and juiciness (p < 0.05). The evaluation of the tasters of the overall appearance of the sausage and its cross-section showed the lowest scores for the sample with 10% oleogel. (Table 5).
The changes in consistency and texture may be due to the interaction between the oleogel and the meat proteins, which can result in the formation of a more rigid protein matrix in the final product [65].
According to the results of a sensory evaluation, the use of soybean oil oleogels to replace pork fat in cured frankfurters did not have an effect on the aroma [56]. Panagiotopoulou et al. (2016) found that replacing up to 20% of animal fat with phytosterol oleogels did not result in any differences in the acceptability of aroma or taste [57]. One potential interaction is the formation of an oil–protein complex, which can impact the gelation and emulsification properties of the meat batter. The formation of this complex can also affect the water-holding capacity of the meat, which may lead to changes in texture, juiciness, and tenderness [66,67].
The lower scores given by tasters for the overall appearance and cross-section of the sausage with 10% oleogel further support the idea that higher concentrations of oleogel can negatively affect the sensory properties of the sausage. This can be explained by the fact that the beeswax component of oleogel is a hydrophobic material that can reduce water-binding capacity, leading to a decrease in juiciness [68]. Monoglyceride is an emulsifier that can affect the fat distribution and homogeneity of the sausage matrix, potentially leading to a less desirable texture. Sunflower oil, on the other hand, is a liquid fat that may not be able to contribute to the formation of a stable matrix, especially at high concentrations [69]. Therefore, it is recommended to use oleogel in moderate amounts (up to 7%) to achieve the desired improvements in texture without compromising the overall quality of the sausage product.

4. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study showed that partially substituting pork fat with oleogel, obtained by structuring sunflower oil with a two-component mixture of monoglyceride and beeswax, in the recipe for semi-smoked sausage can significantly reduce the content of stearic and palmitic acid, increase the content of linoleic acid, and improve the fatty acid profile, while maintaining good organoleptic properties. The content of polyunsaturated (PUFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) increased, improving the overall fatty acid profile. The addition of oleogels did not result in significant changes in the microstructure of the semi-smoked sausages. The addition of 7% oleogel was found to be the optimal substitution level, as it did not deteriorate the sensory properties of the sausage, while 10% oleogel led to a deterioration in texture and juiciness. Therefore, the use of oleogel as a partial substitute for pork fat can be recommended for the production of healthier sausages with improved fatty acid profiles and sensory properties.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.O. and K.A.; Data curation, I.T. and K.A.; Formal analysis, G.O.; Investigation, A.I. and S.A.; Methodology, S.A. and A.A.; Resources, A.A. and I.T.; Software, S.A.; Validation, A.I.; Writing—original draft, A.I.; Writing—review and editing, A.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research is funded by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan (BR10764998).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Applsci 13 05312 g001 550
Figure 1. Oleogel preparation process.
Figure 1. Oleogel preparation process.
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Applsci 13 05312 g002 550
Figure 2. Cross-sectional view of semi-smoked sausages: OG7—sausage with 7% of oleogel; OG10—sausage with 10% of oleogel; Control—sausage without oleogel.
Figure 2. Cross-sectional view of semi-smoked sausages: OG7—sausage with 7% of oleogel; OG10—sausage with 10% of oleogel; Control—sausage without oleogel.
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Applsci 13 05312 g003 550
Figure 3. Comparative analysis of fatty acid content in control and experimental samples of semi-smoked sausages: SFA—saturated fatty acids; MUFA—monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA—polyunsaturated fatty acids; OG7—sausage with 7% of oleogel; OG10—sausage with 10% of oleogel; Control—sausage without oleogel. Different letters above the bars indicate significant differences between samples (p < 0.05).
Figure 3. Comparative analysis of fatty acid content in control and experimental samples of semi-smoked sausages: SFA—saturated fatty acids; MUFA—monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA—polyunsaturated fatty acids; OG7—sausage with 7% of oleogel; OG10—sausage with 10% of oleogel; Control—sausage without oleogel. Different letters above the bars indicate significant differences between samples (p < 0.05).
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Applsci 13 05312 g004 550
Figure 4. Microstructure images of cross-sections of semi-smoked sausages: OG7—sausage with 7% of oleogel; OG10—sausage with 10% of oleogel; Control—sausage without oleogel.
Figure 4. Microstructure images of cross-sections of semi-smoked sausages: OG7—sausage with 7% of oleogel; OG10—sausage with 10% of oleogel; Control—sausage without oleogel.
Applsci 13 05312 g004
Table
Table 1. Semi-smoked sausage formulations, in %.
Table 1. Semi-smoked sausage formulations, in %.
IngredientControlOG 7OG 10
Horse meat262626
Beef262626
Chicken meat252525
Pork fat201310
Oleogel0710
Starch333
Food salt111
Sodium nitrite0.0080.0080.008
Tyrolean flavor0.040.040.04
Almi colorant0.50.50,5
Nitrite salt111
Complex spices “Krakowskie combi”0.150.150.15
Complex spices Kreiner Spice Combi0.090.090.09
Table
Table 2. The fatty acid composition of oleogel.
Table 2. The fatty acid composition of oleogel.
Name of Fatty AcidQuantity, %
Saturated fatty acids, %20.141 ± 1.007
C 14:0 myristic0.190 ± 0.010
C 15:0 pentadecanoic0.026 ± 0.001
C 16:0 palmitic acid12.168 ± 0.608
C 17:0 margarine0.027 ± 0.001
C 18:0 stearic7.114 ± 0.356
C 20:0 arachinic0.074 ± 0.004
C 23:0 tricosanic0.540 ± 0.027
Monounsaturated fatty acids, %17.248 ± 0.862
C 16:1 (cis-9) palmitoleic0.037 ± 0.002
C 17:1 (cis-10) margarinoleic0.016 ± 0.0004
C 18:1 (cis-9) oleic17.101 ± 0.855
C 20:1 (cis-11) eicosene0.094 ± 0.005
Polyunsaturated fatty acids, %62.611 ± 3.131
C 18:2n6c linoleic62.568 ± 3.128
C 18:3n6Y-linolenic0.044 ± 0.002
Table
Table 3. Physicochemical properties of semi-smoked sausages expressed as percentages (mean values ± standard deviation).
Table 3. Physicochemical properties of semi-smoked sausages expressed as percentages (mean values ± standard deviation).
IndicatorControlOG7OG10p-Value
Moisture, %55.26 ± 0.8657.23 ± 0.9256.80 ± 1.14>0.50
Protein, %19.81 ± 0.3519.52 ± 0.2319.49 ± 0.31>0.25
Fat, %18.05 ± 0.2717.90 ± 0.3317.83 ± 0.17>0.25
Carbohydrate, %3.25 ± 0.353.26 ± 0.113.30 ± 0.15>0.25
Ash, %2.46 ± 0.042.39 ± 0.032.47 ± 0.04>0.25
Energy value, kCal/kJ/100 g254.62/1065.33252.18/1054.36251.58/1050.18
pH6.17 ± 0.096.08 ± 0.106.13 ± 0.08>0.25
Table
Table 4. Fatty acid composition of semi-smoked sausages expressed as percentages (mean values ± standard deviation).
Table 4. Fatty acid composition of semi-smoked sausages expressed as percentages (mean values ± standard deviation).
Name of Fatty AcidControlOG7OG10p-Value
SFA, %:40.9026.3725.27
C 10:0 caprine 0.04 ± 0.00ndnd
C 12:0 lauric0.05 ± 0.00 b0.04 ± 0.00 and<0.05
C 14:0 myristic 1.27 ± 0.02 c1.10 ± 0.01 b0.87 ± 0.01 a<0.01
C 15:0 pentadecanoic 0.08 ± 0.00 a0.13 ± 0.00 c0.11 ± 0.00 b<0.05
C 16:0 palmitinic 24.28 ± 0.39 c18.01 ± 0.20 b16.89 ± 0.19 a<0.01
C 17:0 margarine0.28 ± 0.01 c0.21 ± 0.01 b0.17 ± 0.00 a<0.01
C 18:0 stearic14.42 ± 0.22 b6.31 ± 0.09 a6.69 ± 0.06 a<0.001
C 20:0 arachinicnd0.06 ± 0.00 b0.03 ± 0.00 a<0.05
C 21:0 geneicosan0.40 ± 0.01 b0.13 ± 0.00 a0.12 ± 0.00 a<0.05
C 22:0 begene 0.06 ± 0.00 a0.06 ± 0.00 a0.06 ± 0.00 a>0.50
C23:0 tricosannd0.32 ± 0.00 a0.32 ± 0.00 a>0.50
MUFA, %46.1526.3225.08
C 14:1 (cis-9) myristoleic nd0.06 ± 0.00 b0.05 ± 0.00 a<0.05
C 15:1 (cis-10) pentadecenoic nd0.04 ± 0.00 a0.03 ± 0.00 a>0.50
C 16:1 (cis-9) palmitoleic 1.99 ± 0.02 b1.87 ± 0.03 b1.54 ± 0.02 a<0.05
C 17:1 (cis-10) margarinoleic 0.26 ± 0.00 c0.19 ± 0.00 b0.17 ± 0.00 a<0.05
C 18:1 (cis-9) oleic43.27 ± 0.74 b23.87 ± 0.33 a22.99 ± 0.25 a<0.01
C 20:1 (cis-11) eicosene 0.62 ± 0.01 b0.23 ± 0.00 a0.19 ± 0.00 a<0.001
C 22:1 (cis-13) erucicndnd0.03 ± 0.00
C 24:1 selacholicnd0.06 ± 0.00 a0.06 ± 0.00 a>0.50
PUFA, %12.9547.3249.64
C 18:2n6t linoleidine0.03 ± 0.00 bnd0.01 ± 0.00 a<0.05
C 18:2n6c linoleic12.37 ± 0.21 a45.29 ± 0.87 b47.89 ± 0.79 b<0.001
C 18:3n6 Y-linolenic0.32 ± 0.00 a1.65 ± 0.02 c1.36 ± 0.02 b<0.001
C18:3n3 linolenic 0.03 ± 0.00ndnd
C 20:3n6c (cis-8,11,14) eicosatriene nd0.31 ± 0.01 a0.32 ± 0.01 a>0.50
C 20:3n3c (cis-11,14,17) eicosatrieno0.20 ± 0.00 b0.06 ± 0.00 a0.06 ± 0.00 a<0.05
a–c means within the same row, with different letters meaning there is a significant difference among different samples of sausages (p < 0.05); nd—not detected.
Table
Table 5. Sensory characteristics of semi-smoked sausages.
Table 5. Sensory characteristics of semi-smoked sausages.
IndicatorControlOG7OG10p-Value
Appearance4.93 ± 0.08 b4.90 ± 0.05 b4.69 ± 0.07 a<0.05
Taste4.90 ± 0.06 a4.89 ± 0.08 a4.84 ± 0.04 a>0.50
Flavor and aroma4.86 ± 0.08 a4.86 ± 0.05 a4.81 ± 0.05 a>0.50
Consistency4.86 ± 0.06 b4.83 ± 0.07 b4.70 ± 0.05 a<0.05
Color4.85 ± 0.04 a4.83 ± 0.05 a4.75 ± 0.08 a>0.50
View on the cut4.90 ± 0.07 b4.87 ± 0.05 b4.68 ± 0.08 a<0.05
Juiciness4.88 ± 0.05 b4.86 ± 0.05 b4.72 ± 0.05 a<0.05
a–b means within the same row, with different letters meaning there is a significant difference among different samples of sausages (p < 0.05).
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Igenbayev, A.; Ospankulova, G.; Amirkhanov, S.; Aldiyeva, A.; Temirova, I.; Amirkhanov, K. Substitution of Pork Fat with Beeswax-Structured Oleogels in Semi-Smoked Sausages. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 5312. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13095312

AMA Style

Igenbayev A, Ospankulova G, Amirkhanov S, Aldiyeva A, Temirova I, Amirkhanov K. Substitution of Pork Fat with Beeswax-Structured Oleogels in Semi-Smoked Sausages. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(9):5312. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13095312

Chicago/Turabian Style

Igenbayev, Aidyn, Gulnazym Ospankulova, Shyngys Amirkhanov, Akmaral Aldiyeva, Indira Temirova, and Kumarbek Amirkhanov. 2023. "Substitution of Pork Fat with Beeswax-Structured Oleogels in Semi-Smoked Sausages" Applied Sciences 13, no. 9: 5312. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13095312

APA Style

Igenbayev, A., Ospankulova, G., Amirkhanov, S., Aldiyeva, A., Temirova, I., & Amirkhanov, K. (2023). Substitution of Pork Fat with Beeswax-Structured Oleogels in Semi-Smoked Sausages. Applied Sciences, 13(9), 5312. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13095312

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