1. Introduction
Soccer is the world’s most popular sport [
1]. Soccer, like other team sports, is presented as a dynamic system, where there is a competitive relationship between the teams and the cooperation of the members of the same team [
2]. It is considered a high-intensity intermittent team sport due to its acyclic nature and the numerous changes in intensity during the game [
3].
Performance in soccer depends on several factors, such as technical, tactical, physiological, and mental. In relation to physiological factors, strength, power, and endurance play an important role [
1]. Strength is a basic quality that influences power performance. An increase in maximal strength is generally related to an improvement in relative strength and, therefore, to an improvement in power skills. A significant relationship has been observed between maximal strength, acceleration, and speed of movement [
1]. This performance relationship is supported by jumping test results as well as sprinting results [
4]. Due to the increased strength of muscle contraction force, improvements in skills such as turning and speed changes occur [
3]. Regarding endurance, the distances covered by top-level soccer players are approximately 10 to 12 km for field players [
1]. During a soccer match, a sprint occurs approximately every 90 s, each with an average duration of 2 to 4 s [
5]. On the other hand, approximately, each player performs between 1000 and 1400 short actions [
1].
Within the physical aspect, success in soccer has been associated with specific morphological characteristics and fitness-related parameters [
6]. Anthropometric measurements, body composition, and physical condition, including cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility are key to successful performance [
1,
7]. These parameters are evaluated by means of a vertical jump test, speed test, acceleration test, progressive round-trip test, and isometric/isotonic/isokinetic strength test [
8,
9]. The results obtained provide information for coaches and physical trainers to monitor the condition of the players, to program and plan sports training, as well as to assess the probability of injury, as it is known that there is a relationship between some anthropometric characteristics and the risk of injury [
10]. In addition, it is possible to find a relationship between body composition and performance parameters in soccer, such as speed and power [
7,
8,
11].
The physical demands are different depending on the playing position and have been previously studied [
8,
12,
13]. It is known that midfielders (M) run a significantly greater distance than other positions. Similarly, a forwards (F) performs many more sprints and high-intensity actions than a defender (DF) or M [
14,
15]. In addition to the different physical demands among playing positions, it has been reported that soccer players have different anthropometric characteristics depending on the playing position [
8]. This suggests that there are specific physiological demands and anthropometric characteristics for different playing positions [
16]. For example, the mean range of % body fat ranged from 11.2 to 31.91 %, 8.5 to 29.84 %, 8.4 to 25.82 %, and 9.39 to 27.89 % for goalkeeper (GK), DF, M, and F, respectively [
17]. Previous studies showed that the percentage of body fat was lower in M [
18]. This fact could be due to M covering longer distances running compared to the other positions [
12]. These data could result in the selection of young players based on superior physiological performance and anthropometric advantage [
8].
Body composition is highly related to performance in physical fitness tests in soccer players [
19]. Increased fat values result in additional body mass and decreased performance [
20]. A low fat percentage is related to better sprint, acceleration, change of direction, and jumping times [
21]. Gender differences in body composition become apparent during puberty, where men have greater muscle weight compared to women [
22]. Despite the existence of physiological differences between the sexes [
23], the hypothesis that these differences decrease when comparisons are made between highly trained men and women has existed for some time [
24].
Previous studies have analyzed sex differences in body composition [
24,
25] and physical fitness [
26,
27], as well as differences among playing positions in these variables [
20,
28]. However, few studies have simultaneously compared anthropometric characteristics and body composition in both sexes using the same research design, which is an important methodological aspect [
27]. In view of the above, the objectives of the present study were: (i) to analyze the differences in anthropometric parameters, body composition, and physical condition between sexes and playing position in soccer players, and (ii) to relate anthropometric and body composition parameters to physical condition parameters according to sex.
4. Discussion
The objectives of the present study were (i) to analyze the differences in anthropometric parameters, body composition, and physical condition between sexes and playing position in soccer players and (ii) to relate anthropometric and body composition parameters with physical condition parameters according to sex. The findings of the present study were: (1) anthropometric and body composition characteristics differed between sexes; (2) fat percentage was higher in F than in M; (3) men soccer players showed better results in physical condition tests compared to women soccer players; and (4) there were significant relationships between anthropometric and physical condition parameters and physical condition tests, at a general level and differentiating between sexes. The evaluation of body composition in athletes can help optimize competitive performance, which is of interest to sports professionals [
37]. Improved body composition in athletes is associated with improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness and strength [
38]. The data reported in the present study are similar to those reported in previous studies on soccer players [
8,
28,
39].
The sex differences in anthropometry and body composition reported in the present study are in line with previous studies in soccer players [
24] and other sports [
40,
41,
42,
43]. Mascherini et al. [
24] observed in 18 elite men soccer players and 18 elite women soccer players significant sex differences in stretch stature, body mass, fold sum, fat mass, muscle mass, and fat-free mass. Due to the difference in level, body composition values in women soccer players were lower compared to the present study. Similarly, Baker et al. [
25] reported on a sample of 43 elite soccer players (men, n = 23; women, n = 20) differences in body mass, stretch stature, fat mass, and fat percentage. However, the previous authors used the dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry technique. Taketomi et al. [
44] reported that men soccer players were taller, heavier, and had lower fat mass and body fat percentage, and higher skeletal muscle mass compared to women soccer players. Gender differences in body composition are evident at an early stage and are most significant during puberty [
45]. Men have greater muscle weight, larger bones, and reduced fat in the extremities, whereas women have a more peripheral fat distribution. Sex differences in body composition are mainly attributed to the action of sex steroid hormones as they drive dimorphisms during pubertal development. These gender differences continue throughout life [
46].
Regarding sex differences in physical fitness, Cardoso de Araujo et al. [
27] reported, in a sample of 76 soccer players (29 women and 47 men, aged 17–34 years) from the German Bundesliga (the highest level of the German soccer league), differences in height in CMJ, SJ, and maximum distance in an incremental test, showing a relation to the results of the present study. Despite the high level, women soccer players in the present study obtained better results in CMJ performance compared to the women players in the previous study. On the other hand, Mujika et al. [
47] reported, on a sample of 68 (34 female and 34 male players) Spanish first division and youth soccer players, that men soccer players showed higher values in the Yo-Yo test, CMJ and sprint compared to women soccer players. Similarly, Ramírez-Campillo et al. [
48] reported sex differences in the vertical jump, speed, medicine ball throw, and 20 m multi-stage shuttle run. The observed sex differences in the vertical jump could be due to a lower relative concentric vertical force and eccentric rate of force development in women when jumping [
27]. This may also be partially explained by differences in lower extremity muscle morphology, such as muscle size and pennation angle [
49]. As for the strength tests, several structural factors, such as muscle cross-sectional area, specific strain (force per cross-sectional area), tendon stiffness, pennation angle, muscle fiber length, and fascicle length, could explain the gender differences in force-generating capabilities [
50]. In addition, men have higher absolute muscle power than women, which is a key factor in performance in typical actions during a match such as jumps, accelerations, and speed [
51].
In the present study the fat percentage was lower in M, showing significant differences with F (
p < 0.05). This parameter was lower in men soccer players (
p < 0.001). A report on young high-level players reported that F presented higher estimated body fat values than the rest of the field players [
52]. Likewise, previous studies on elite soccer players showed that body fat percentage was lower in M compared to other positions [
42], in agreement with the present study. In contrast, Cárdenas-Fernández et al. [
28] reported in 174 young male soccer players (11–18 years old) differences in fat percentage among playing positions, being higher in GK and lower in F. Likewise, Gil et al. [
20] reported, in a sample of 241 Spanish players between 14 and 22 years of age, that F showed lower body mass and fat percentages and higher muscle percentages. The previous authors used a similar methodology to determine anthropometric and body composition parameters as in the present study. Discrepancies between investigations could be due to the age of the participating subjects, as well as the level and style of play of the team, which could influence the training methodology and physical demands during the match. The review by Slimani and Nikolaidis [
53] reported differences in fat percentage and body mass according to playing position, being generally higher in GK and DF. Similarly, Lago-Peñas et al. [
8] reported that GK and central DF presented higher values of mass and fat percentage. Due to the differences in physical demands, M cover longer distances running and sprinting compared to the other positions. In addition, M tend to spend less time standing still on the field [
12]. It should be noted that energy expenditure during a match depends on the player’s position [
14]. All of the above could generate decreases in fat and body mass, this being the playing position that obtains the lowest values in these parameters.
No significant positional differences were evidenced in the different physical condition tests performed. Previous studies reported that GK and F reach greater stretch stature in the vertical jump tests compared to the rest of the positions. On the other hand, wingers are the fastest players without being significant, and F and M present higher VO
2max values [
8,
20]. The absence of positional differences for jumping performance is reiterated in previous findings in professional players in Iceland [
54], South Africa [
55] and USA college players [
56]. In the present study, it was reported that GK+DF and F jumped higher, had higher strength values, and had higher absolute VO
2max compared to M. However, in relation to body mass, M had higher VO
2max values. Certain positions would benefit from the ability to execute higher vertical jumps, especially those who regularly engage in head-to-head duels in dangerous areas in front of the goal, such as GK, DF, and F. M run long distances compared to the other positions [
14,
15]. They have to perform both defensive and offensive skills and are always asked to perform long runs; therefore, M must have a high level of aerobic fitness [
57].
Regarding the relationships between body composition and physical fitness, Leão et al. [
11] observed in a sample of 66 U-16, U-17, and U-19 male soccer players highly significant positive relationships between muscle mass and CMJ and highly significant negative relationships between CMJ and fat percentage. Other authors [
58] reported negative relationships between sprint time and aerobic capacity with fat percentage. In women soccer players, VO
2max correlated directly with fat percentage [
59]. Body composition is closely related to the ability of players to achieve peak performance in various soccer-related performance tests [
7]. A high level of fat acts as an extra body mass in motor actions, in which the body mass must continuously lift against gravity, and can substantially decrease the player’s performance [
20]. Body fat determines the amount of biomechanical inertia that a soccer player must overcome when accelerating and changing direction, so there is a mismatch between a high fat percentage and performance [
20]. In addition, some researchers found that body fat percentage could differentiate higher-level soccer players from lower-level players [
17].
Some limitations should be taken into consideration: (i) the absence of soccer-specific tests (repeat sprint ability, agility, changes of direction, maximum acceleration, or maximum speed), (ii) the small number of participants; (iii) GK were included in the group of DF; (iv) specify further the groups analyzed (fullbacks, defensive M, extreme F…); (v) technical measurement error was not analyzed; and (vi) the absence of other, more accurate methods to assess body composition (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry). Finally, future research should determine or analyze the relationships between body composition and physical condition, both in M and F in different playing categories and training stages to determine sensitive phases of development of the most relevant physical qualities in soccer.