1. Introduction
Wood, a fundamental natural resource, has been employed in various applications since time immemorial. Its versatility, renewable nature, and wide availability have rendered it an indispensable material in industries such as construction, furniture, and manufacturing [
1,
2,
3]. However, one of the perennial challenges associated with wood products is their susceptibility to combustion. The threat of fire not only poses safety concerns but also has substantial economic and ecological ramifications. Hence, there has been an enduring quest to enhance the fire-resistant properties of wood [
4,
5,
6,
7,
8,
9,
10].
Among the numerous wood species available, poplar wood (
Populus spp.) stands out for its fast growth rate and ease of cultivation. Poplar is widely distributed across temperate regions, and its utilization has surged in recent years, particularly in applications where rapid growth is essential [
11]. Black poplar (
Populus nigra L.) is one of these species. Black poplar is distributed in North Africa, Central and Western Asia, and Europe, especially in wetlands along riverbanks [
12]. The distribution of poplar species in the world is more than 100 million ha. Türkiye ranks fourth in the world in terms of poplar plantation area [
13]. More than 3 million m
3 of wood are obtained annually from this species alone in Türkiye [
14]. Although black poplar wood is widely used in furniture production, it can also find a place as a raw material in the packaging industry (boxes, crates, pallets, etc.) and in the production of models, plywood, matches, composite panels, and prostheses [
15,
16]. Nevertheless, like many other wood varieties, poplar wood is inherently vulnerable to fire, necessitating innovative approaches to improve its fire-resistant characteristics.
In this context, the impregnation of wood with fire-retardant chemicals has emerged as a promising avenue for enhancing its fire resistance. Impregnation involves the penetration of wood with fire-retardant substances, which can alter the wood’s surface properties and combustion behavior [
17,
18,
19]. The choice of impregnation technique and the type of fire retardant used are important factors in determining the effectiveness of this process. Therefore, it becomes imperative to explore the influence of diverse impregnation techniques on the surface characteristics and combustion behavior of poplar wood [
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
25].
The practice of impregnating wood with various substances to enhance its properties is a method that has been used for many years. It has been employed for centuries, albeit with rudimentary techniques. Modern wood impregnation techniques have evolved significantly [
26,
27,
28,
29,
30]. One of the earliest methods involved simply soaking wood in a solution containing fire-retardant chemicals. While this method is straightforward, it often results in uneven impregnation and inadequate penetration of fire retardants into the wood’s cellular structure. To address these limitations, vacuum impregnation and pressure impregnation techniques were developed. Vacuum impregnation, in particular, involves subjecting wood to reduced pressure before immersing it in a fire-retardant solution [
24,
31,
32,
33,
34].
The choice of fire-retardant chemicals is a critical determinant of the efficacy of wood impregnation. Fire retardants can be categorized into several classes, including inorganic compounds, organic compounds, and intumescent agents [
35,
36,
37,
38]. Inorganic fire retardants, such as ammonium phosphate and aluminum hydroxide, work by releasing water vapor when exposed to heat, thereby reducing the wood’s temperature and retarding combustion. One of these, calcium oxide (CaO), is a white, corrosive, and alkaline solid [
39]. Calcium oxide is used in the construction industry and in the production of paper, among many other applications, such as the manufacture of various types of glass [
39,
40]. These compounds are known for their non-toxic nature and widespread use in wood impregnation.
In this study, black poplar wood was subjected to different impregnation methods with calcium hydroxide in order to improve its physical properties and resistance to burning. Solutions prepared at different concentrations (1%, 3% and 5%) were used in the vacuum method and the immersion method. The chemical and thermal changes caused by the impregnation process in the samples were evaluated by comparison with the control samples. The effects of different impregnation methods at different durations and concentrations on the physical and fire properties of the samples were investigated.
3. Results and Discussion
The physical characteristics of the samples of black poplar with different impregnation methods are presented in
Table 3. Using the ANOVA test, it was found that there was a statistically significant difference between the control and impregnated sample sets in terms of the physical characteristics of the experimental specimens. After applying the Duncan test, four homogeneous clusters were delineated within each of the datasets corresponding to D
0, TS-2, and TS-24 h and five homogeneous clusters were delineated within each of the datasets corresponding to WA-2, WA-24, and WPG.
It was found that the density (D0) and weight percent gain (WPG) rose when the lime ratio increased in the two impregnation methods. When 1%, 3%, and 5% lime were added, respectively, the D0 values were found to be between 0.41 and 0.49 g/cm3. Depending on this, the WPG increased between 0.62% and 2.28%. Applied impregnation methods with lime progressively decreased water absorption and thickness swelling in the samples. It was observed that WA-2, WA-24, TS-2, and TS-24 values decreased when 1%, 3%, and 5% lime were added, respectively.
The WA-2 decreased between 11.5% and 30.5%, the WA-24 values decreased between 6.9% and 18.4%, the TS-2 values decreased between 10.9% and 27.6%, and the TS-24 values decreased between 12.6% and 29.7% in the immersion method. In the vacuum method, which is the other method applied, the WA-2 decreased between 18.2% and 42.2%, WA-24 values decreased between 12.3% and 25.7%, TS-2 values decreased between 22.6% and 40.5%, and TS-24 values decreased between 13.9% and 33.6% (
Table 3). These data are consistent with earlier research, which found that adding lime to wood increased its physical qualities and made it more stable dimensionally [
5,
8,
9,
33]. In addition, there appear to be obvious differences in physical properties between the applied methods. It is seen that the vacuum method provides more stability to the wood material compared to the immersion method [
51,
52,
53].
Table 4 displays the surface roughness, contact angle, and LOI characteristics of samples of black poplar treated with various impregnation methods. According to the ANOVA test, a statistically significant difference was detected in the physical properties of both control and impregnated sample groups. Following the implementation of the Duncan test, we identified four consistent and similar groups within each dataset associated with surface roughness, contact angle, and LOI.
The average roughness parameter (Ra) increased with an increase in the solution ratio. The values were found to be between 2.77 and 5.22. Compared to the control group, the B group exhibited the smallest alteration, registering a 21.3% change, while the G group displayed the most substantial variation with an 88.4% shift. Ra increases the surface roughness of the impregnation process. It is explained that this situation is related to the increase in the amount of substance on the surface as the amount of retention increases [
54,
55,
56].
The contact angle values of the groups included in the study are shown in
Table 4. It has been determined that as the lime concentration ratio increases, the contact angle increases. The values were found to be between 41° and 68°. It has been determined that the highest hydrophobic sample group with a contact angle of 68° is obtained with group G, which increases hydrophobicity by 65.8% compared to group A. Similar to the findings for water absorption, increasing lime particles increased the contact angle, which was significantly higher in woods treated and impregnated [
57,
58,
59,
60].
The LOI values of the sample groups are summarized in
Table 4. The values were found to be between 23.16% and 31.23%. It has been determined that the highest fireproof sample group with a LOI of 31.23% is obtained with group G, which increases fire resistance by 34.8% compared to group A. In wood impregnated with lime minerals, the LOI value increased as the lime ratio increased. LOI values were found to be between 26.75% and 30.08% in the immersion method and between 28.27% and 31.23% in the vacuum method. The vacuum method is posited to yield a superior insulating effect against heat transfer compared to the immersion method. The retardation of flame propagation appears to stem from the lime’s capacity to facilitate the generation of char. This ensuing coal coating forms an insulative barrier, impeding the passage of combustible gases that sustain the flame and displaying resistance to heat transfer [
61,
62,
63].
FTIR analysis was employed to discern the functional groups and chemical interactions among the materials. The FTIR spectrum exhibited observable shifts in the characteristic peaks of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, contingent upon the impregnation method and the ratio of lime additive. FTIR spectra encompassing the impregnated black poplar samples, as well as the control samples, were recorded over the wavelength range of 4000 to 400 cm
−1. The control group and the groups impregnated with both impregnation methods show absorbance peaks for wood fibers at 876 cm
−1 (Si–O–C), 1060 cm
−1 (C–O–C), 2910 cm
−1 (C–H), and 3450 cm
−1 (O–H). In addition, the impregnated groups showed a new increase at 1450 cm
−1 for C=O stretching vibration. The lack of a drop in the strength of the band at 1060 cm
−1 indicates that the cellulose’s C–O–C bonds have not been harmed by the procedure. It may be argued that the impregnated lime particles are to blame for this phenomenon (
Table 5 and
Figure 1). The absorption bands over 1450 cm
−1 can be assigned to the stretching vibrations of (CO
3)- anions present in the carbonate phase in the sample. The behavior of Ca(OH)
2 adsorbed on the surface was monitored, showing that Ca(OH)
2 continuously transformed into the carbonate phase and crystallization proceeded first through the formation of aragonite-like and then calcium-like carbonates [
64].
The presence of a band at 3450 cm
−1 signifies a reduction in the quantity of OH groups, leading to a further decrease compared to the control group. An examination of the FTIR spectroscopy peaks reveals notable alterations in cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin due to the processing [
23,
66,
67]. In contrast to the control group, the peak observed at 2910 cm
−1 is notably diminished. This decrease can be attributed to the asymmetric stretching of C–H methyl and methylene groups [
68,
69,
70]. Conversely, a noticeable increase is evident in the peak at 1450 cm
−1 compared to the control group. This peak is characteristic of lignin components and signifies symmetrical tension vibrations in C=O and –COO groups within aromatic rings [
71,
72,
73]. Moreover, these changes elucidate the influence of functional groups in the added lime minerals on the wood. Another significant observation is the increase in the 873 cm
−1 band relative to the control group, which can be attributed to the Si–O–Al stretching mode associated with CaO [
74,
75]. Additionally, distinct peak bands are discernible at 430 cm
−1 [
23,
76]. Those findings suggest that lime minerals were successfully grafted into the poplar wood fibers.
The TGA and DTG thermograms of the control and impregnated black poplar samples are plotted in
Figure 2 and
Figure 3.
The provided data in
Table 6 summarize the initial decomposition temperature (T
0), maximum degradation temperature (T
max), final temperature (T
f), and residual weight (RW, %) for the wood samples, both impregnated and control, with calcium hydroxide. The onset of degradation occurred at 140 °C for both the impregnated and non-impregnated black poplar samples, signifying the removal of water and certain extractive components from the specimens up to this temperature [
77,
78]. After 140 °C, the decomposition process continued until 476 °C in the control sample, between 494 and 531 °C in the samples impregnated with the immersion method, and between 532 and 584 °C in the samples impregnated with the vacuum method. The highest final temperature was determined in the G sample at 584 °C. The maximum degradation temperature is the lowest value in the control sample at 329 °C and the highest value in the G sample at 347 °C. From 140 °C to 476 °C, and 584 °C, hemicellulose, the remaining extractives, lignin, and cellulose were decomposed [
22,
79]. The residue weight varied depending on the method of impregnation. The rate of RW at 600 °C in the samples was 16.2% in the control sample (A), between 18.3 and 22.3% in the samples impregnated with the immersion method, and between 19.8 and 24.9% in the samples impregnated with the vacuum method. The TGA study results showed that as the concentration of calcium hydroxide increased, the heat resistance of the fibers gradually increased. Additionally, the amount of residue detected in the vacuum method is slightly higher than in the immersion method. These values are relatively low when compared with the literature results [
80,
81,
82,
83,
84].
Observation under SEM at high magnifications showed the samples of impregnated and unimpregnated black poplar (
Figure 4 and
Figure 5).
SEM analysis of impregnated wood material revealed the presence of impregnation substances concentrated along the wood lumen cell and transition edges. Additionally, nanoparticles were observed to form clusters within certain regions of the trachea [
85]. It can be seen that the amount of impregnation filling the lumen cell is related to the change in concentration.