A Robust Sharding-Enabled Blockchain with Efficient Hashgraph Mechanism for MANETs
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- A sharding hashgraph framework with a blacklist is proposed for the MANET-based blockchain. In each shard, the blacklist records the dishonest consensus activities of nodes in a decentralized manner. With the assistance of the blacklist, gossip information is sent to a reliable neighbor, and gossip information from another reliable neighbor is received first. It improves the efficiency of gossip about gossip in hashgraph consensus.
- A tree-assisted inter-sharding consensus is proposed to prevent Sybil attacks. A tree, , whose root is the participation request of a node, is constructed by all involved shards. Based on , the requester with enough reputation values is allowed to join the shard, and its reputation values cannot be reused in other shards. Furthermore, transactions of the requester can be updated to the graph, and the requester propagates gossip information first. Once the requester is allowed to join the shard, its updated transactions can be used directly, and previous virtual voting is counted in hashgraph consensus. Hence, the requester can participate in activities of the shard without waiting.
- The combination of shard recovery and reconfiguration based on node state is proposed to prevent targeted attacks. Based on node state changes and , a compromised shard can be determined by other shards and then is recovered. When node states are changed frequently in the shard, the shard is reconfigured dynamically and adaptively.
2. Related Works
2.1. Sharding-Enabled Blockchain
2.2. MANET-Based Blockchain
3. Preliminary
4. Behavior-Based Sharding Hashgraph Framework
4.1. System Model
4.2. Network Model
4.3. Security Problem
- Sybil attack. A malicious node intends to create multiple identities to participate in shards, or an identity is used in multiple shards. Intuitively, only when the identity is validated by multiple shards is the node allowed to join a shard. Nevertheless, under unstable communications among shards, high transmission delay makes the node spend a long time waiting for identity authentication.
- Targeted attack. Malicious nodes intend to control a specified shard by compromising honest nodes or joining the shard. When the number of malicious nodes exceeds the fault tolerance of the shard, it is corrupted. Intuitively, the reconfiguration of shards in a small epoch can alleviate the targeted attack. Nevertheless, it results in the frequent interruption of services during shard reconfiguration, reducing the performance of the system.
5. Asynchronous Intra-Sharding and Inter-Sharding Consensus
5.1. Principle of Tree-Assisted Inter-Sharding Consensus
- A cross-shard transaction is generated and updated to the graph of the local shard and sent to involved shards.
- Transactions related to the cross-shard transaction are generated and updated by involved shards in parallel. They refer to the cross-shard transaction and are sent to other involved shards, constructing the tree globally.
- When the cross-shard transaction is used, the number of child nodes of the cross-shard transaction and their validity are checked. Only if the cross-shard transaction is validated by all involved shards is it confirmed. Otherwise, if a given time is expired, the cross-shard transaction is revoked by a newly updated transaction, and the event containing the cross-shard transaction is determined to be a False Event and added into the blacklist.
5.2. Work Process of a Dynamic Shard
Algorithm 1 is verified in an involved shard. |
Input: , the graph in the involved shard |
Output: or False |
1: if the signature of the requester is valid && there is a latest cross-shard joined transaction before a latest cross-shard exited transaction of the requester then |
2: Get && |
3: Retrieve the set of requester’s cross-shard joined transactions, , and set of requester’s cross-shard existed transactions, , from local graph |
4: if then |
5: for each in do |
6: Get an element which from |
7: Get an element which from |
8: if not exist || || || || is wrong then return False |
9: Generate |
10: else return False |
11: else return False |
Algorithm 2 is verified in . |
Input: |
Output: , or () |
1: Get the root of , |
2: Get children of in , |
3: Retrieve IDs of involved shards from |
4: if then |
5: Sequence elements in according to and as the previous one of |
6: for Each in in ascending order do |
7: |
8: |
9: if then return |
10: if a given time is expired then |
11: Generate |
12: Generate with as the public key of the request according to (3) |
6. Shard Recovery and Reconfiguration
Algorithm 3 Recovery of Shard A by shard D and E. |
Input: s, , |
Output: Recovery of Shard A |
For a node within shard A |
1: The node sends to shard D and E to accuse shard A of being corrupted |
For shards A, D and E |
2: According to s, the lastest trusted block, , is confirmed through the majority principle |
For both shards D and E |
3: if is agreed by shard A then |
4: Calculate the reputation value of shard A, , according to (9) |
5: if then |
6: Verify transactions after in |
7: if any false transaction found in then |
8: Shard A is reconfigured |
9: is the latest block of the chain in shard A |
10: else |
11: Shard A is reconfigured |
12: is the latest block of the chain in shard A |
7. Performance Evaluation
7.1. Security Analysis
- Sybil attack
- Targeted attack
- Accountability
- Adaptability
- Decentralization
7.2. Experimental Evaluation
7.2.1. Experimental Setting
7.2.2. Experimental Results
- Intra-sharding consensus
- Inter-sharding consensus
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Recent events | , | , | , |
Past events | , | , | , |
Consensus Scheme | Consistency | Leader-Based | Fault Tolerance | Neighbors Selection for Events Propagationn |
---|---|---|---|---|
PBFT | Strong | Leader | less than of all nodes | Random |
traditional hashgraph | Eventual | Leaderless | less than of all nodes | Random |
Zhang et al. [23] | Eventual | Leader | less than of all nodes | Random |
Wang et al. [24] | Eventual | Leader | less than | Random |
our scheme | Eventual | Leaderless | less than of all nodes | Selective |
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Lai, R.; Zhao, G.; He, Y.; Hou, Z. A Robust Sharding-Enabled Blockchain with Efficient Hashgraph Mechanism for MANETs. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 8726. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13158726
Lai R, Zhao G, He Y, Hou Z. A Robust Sharding-Enabled Blockchain with Efficient Hashgraph Mechanism for MANETs. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(15):8726. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13158726
Chicago/Turabian StyleLai, Ruilin, Gansen Zhao, Yale He, and Zhihao Hou. 2023. "A Robust Sharding-Enabled Blockchain with Efficient Hashgraph Mechanism for MANETs" Applied Sciences 13, no. 15: 8726. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13158726
APA StyleLai, R., Zhao, G., He, Y., & Hou, Z. (2023). A Robust Sharding-Enabled Blockchain with Efficient Hashgraph Mechanism for MANETs. Applied Sciences, 13(15), 8726. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13158726