A Comparative Analysis Study on Para Athletics’ Track Discipline Change and Performance Trend in the Paralympic Games (2004–2020)
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The Research Institute of Physical Education & Sports Science, Korea National Sport University, 1239 Yangjae-daero, Seoul 05541, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Adapted Physical Education, Korea National Sport University, 1239 Yangjae-daero, Seoul 05541, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(24), 12904; https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412904
Submission received: 21 November 2022
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Revised: 8 December 2022
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Accepted: 13 December 2022
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Published: 15 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sports Performance Analysis and Applied Technologies)
Abstract
:The Paralympics is a world-class sports event that inspires and impresses people around the world, of which athletics is the most medal-competitive event in the Paralympics, with more than 130 countries participating. This study aims to provide baseline data for disabled athletes’ (para athletes’) athletic performance improvement on track, by generating information on athletic performance trends through the identification of para athletics’ discipline change in each Paralympic Games (PG) held between 2004 and 2020, and by analyzing differences in records by discipline level (podium group [winners’ group] and final group [group reaching finals]). To achieve its purpose, this study collected data and analyzed athletics’ track events at five Paralympic Games (2004 Athens PG to 2020 Tokyo PG) organized by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and checked changes in disciplines. To analyze athletic performance differences between the podium group and the final group by dividing the disciplines in disabled athletes’ track events in the PG that were consecutively held into men’s division and women’s division, this study used Kruskal–Wallis Test, a nonparametric statistical method. Additionally, this study presented the drawn event record trends of the podium group by discipline in each class through visualization. The results drawn through this study are as follows: First, as a result of analyzing the change in disciplines of disabled athletes’ track events, the number of track disciplines in the 5 PG was Track (T) 61, T51, T52, T48, and T44, respectively. Disciplines in the men’s division showed a gradually decreasing trend. In the women’s division, the track disciplines in the 5 PG were T30, T33, T37, T40, and T36, respectively. The disciplines in the women’s division increased until the Rio 2016 PG. Second, according to an analysis of athletic performance by class of para athletes’ track disciplines by PG (2004–2020), significant differences were found in both the podium and final groups. Third, as a result of analyzing the podium group’s record change trends by para athletes’ track disciplines and classes, the following points were revealed: (1) in the mean record change in the men’s podium group records were improving in most classes; (2) according to the women’s podium group record trend analysis the record improvement was high in T37 and T53 classes. In the T11 and T12 classes improved in each PG. In conclusion, as the PG continued, the number of track events in the men’s division of para athlete disciplines decreased, but records show an improving trend. Meanwhile, the number of disciplines shows an increasing trend in the women’s division, and especially the trend was remarkable after 2012. In conclusion, as Paralympic Games continued, the number of disciplines declined in the men’s division but records show an improving trend. As the number of disciplines decreased, athletes went to other disciplines, so competition became fierce and competitiveness was judged to improve. Meanwhile, in the disciplines of the women’s division increased due to the increasing number of in disciplines available.
1. Introduction
Since para athletics was adopted as a formal event in the First Rome 1960 Paralympic Games, it has continuously developed and has placed itself as the most popular para sports event. Most athletes and countries are participating in para athletics among Paralympics events. Para athletics athletes are in full activity in 130 countries worldwide [1].
The disciplines of para athletics are divided depending on track and field sectors. The sports classes of para athletics comply with the World Para Athletics (WPA) classification rules and regulations. Disabled people have 10 disability types and 8 physical impairment types, along with visual impairment and intellectual impairment. Because the performance of athletes participating in each event of para sports is affected depending on their disability level, classification is carried out considering the event’s characteristics so that athletes with a similar level of abilities can fairly compete; this is called “sports class.” To secure qualification to participate in the events of para athletics, a person should meet minimum impairment criteria specified in the rules and regulations of the sports class of para athletics [2].
Para athletics is a representative basic event that becomes the basis of disabled people’s sports, and it is the event in which athletes compete for the most medals in Paralympic Games (PG) organized by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) [2]. The track events of para athletics, which are called the essence of Summer Paralympic Games, consist of seven classes of wheelchair racing (physical impairment: T32–34 and T51–54) and 20 classes of running (visual impairment: T11–13; intellectual impairment: T20; physical impairment: T35–38, T40–41, T42–44, T45–47, and T61–64). Thus, participation in 27 sports classes is possible. Sports classes (where activity restriction is severe, as numbers are lower) are classified through a number of each class after “T”, which means track, so disciplines by impairment type are carried out [1]. Above all, para athletes in the track events compete for the most medals, along with swimming [2].
Consequently, the para sports’ international competitiveness indicating excellent athletic performance in track events among para athletics can be very high. In addition, the performance of athletes participating in recent para athletics is continuously growing, while competition among countries is becoming fierce. At a time of increased interest in para athletics from the international society and with international competitiveness being consolidated, studies by which athletic performance in para track events can be checked are clearly necessary [3]. Despite such a situation, countries participating in para athletics have insufficient information on the trends in para athletic events to achieve excellent performance in international competitions by promoting athletic performance improvement. The track events of para athletics decide victory depending on game records; therefore, an analysis of game records should be identified to get excellent records. More and more nations and athletes are participating in the track events of para athletics as the track events develop further based on a long history, and competitiveness becomes accelerated [1,2,4]. Despite the growth, only some studies have been presented on the athletic performance in para athletic events. When looking at studies related to para athletics, there is a study on the sport injury and risk of track athletes participating in Paralympic Games and performance records of specific disabled types [5,6], a study on the effects of equipment technology development including prosthetic [7,8], a study on the intrinsic variables of injury factors including disability types and physiological factors of athletes participating in the Paralympics, external factors such as environmental condition training methods and nutrition for athletes’ performance [9,10], and a study on athletic performance through various training method applications for wheelchair racing athletes and users [11,12,13]. The studies targeting para athletic events were mainly related to athletic performance and centered on equipment, impairment types, nutrition, physiology, and training methods. Studies on athletic performance through an analytic approach to records are insufficient. In mega sports events such as the Paralympic Games, studies on the analysis of the athletic performance and records of para sports are lacking, so those studies need to be expanded despite fierce competition among countries to get high-ranked records. Meanwhile, records in sports games can be diversely used, such as providing information through which differences in the athletic levels of countries and athletes in specific events can be checked. Specifically, data that analyzed top-ranking groups of international tournaments can be diversely used to select events to participate in and set common objectives [14,15,16]. Therefore, the importance of recent game records analysis has been emphasized, and analytical studies on game records in the para sports field are performed [17,18,19].
It is essential to perform an analysis using the records of top-ranking athletes who participated in the Paralympic Games for the athletic performance improvement of para athletic track events. To get good performance in para athletic track events, data through which top ranking athletes’ international level athletic performance trends can be checked and compared, as well as the disciplines and changes in Paralympic Games representing the para sports field, are judged to be necessary. This study aimed to identify the change in disciplines in the para athletic track events in the Paralympic Games (2004–2020), analyze game records’ differences and athletic performance trends by level of men and women top ranking athletes (No. 1 to No. 8) who participated in track events, and provide the relevant information to contribute to the improvement of para athletics’ performance. Specifically, the research problems of this study are as follows: First, what changes occurred in disciplines in the track events of the Paralympic Games organized by the IPC? Second, what differences are there in the athletic performance of the men’s and women’s podium groups and the final group of the disciplines in the track events of the Paralympic Games? Third, what trend is there in the athletic performance of the men’s and women’s podium and final groups in the track events?
2. Methods
2.1. Data Sources
To achieve the purpose of this study, it identified record changes in the podium group and final group, consecutively carried out by class, in the track events of the five Paralympic Games (from Athens 2004 to Tokyo 2020). For specific game records the formal game results provided by the IPC were collected [20,21,22,23,24]; namely, the data were collected based on the athletes’ records included in the final eight ranked by class. A total of 3318 game records were collected: 700 pieces of data (497 in the men’s division and 203 in the women’s division); 585 pieces of data (364 in the men’s division and 221 in the women’s division); 561 pieces of data (352 in the men’s division and 239 in the women’s division); 763 pieces of data (444 in the men’s division and 319 in the women’s division); and 709 pieces of data (399 in the men’s division and 310 in the women’s division) in the Athens 2004, Beijing 2008, London 2012, Rio 2016, and Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games, respectively. The disqualified (DQ) data were excluded from the analysis of the collected data. The process finally used 3309 game record data for the analysis.
2.2. Data Analysis Process
The research variable was divided into men’s and women’s divisions to check the game record changes in the podium and final groups depending on disciplines by class in the track events of the Paralympic Games. The following data processing methods were used to check game record differences in the disciplines consecutively carried out in the five Paralympic Games: First, the Kruskal–Wallis Test, a nonparametric statistical method, was analyzed using IBM SPSS 25.0 Version to verify game record differences in each Paralympic Games. The analysis was carried out by setting a statistical significance level α = 0.05. Second, this study analyzed, visualized, and presented the game record trends of the podium group by disciplines in each class.
3. Results
3.1. Discipline Changes by Men’s and Women’s Classes in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games
3.1.1. Discipline Changes in the Men’s Division in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games
Table 1 shows changes in the disciplines in the men’s division in the last five Paralympic Games. In the Athens 2004 Paralympic Games, the number of track disciplines except for relays, marathons, and jumping events was 61. In the Beijing 2008 Paralympic Games, the number was 51. In the London 2012 Paralympic Games it was 52. In the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games it was 48. In the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games it was 44. Thus, men’s disciplines showed a gradually declining trend.
3.1.2. Changes in Women’s Division Disciplines in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games
Table 2 shows the changes in women’s division disciplines in the Paralympic Games. In the Athens 2004 Paralympic Games the number of track disciplines except for relays, marathon, and jumping events was 30; in the Beijing 2008 Paralympic Games it was 33; in the London 2012 Paralympic Games it was 37; in the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games it was 40; and in the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games it was 36. Unlike the men’s division, women’s division events increased until the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games.
3.2. Record Differences by Class in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games
3.2.1. Men’s Division Records Differences by Class in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games
In men’s 100 m run, As shown in Table 3, the classes of T11 (podium: p = 0.027, final: p = 0.001), T35 (podium: p = 0.017, final: p = 0.000), T36 (podium: p = 0.037, final: p = 0.006), and T37 (podium: p = 0.012, final: p = 0.000) showed significant differences in both podium and final groups. T12 (p = 0.045) showed a significant difference in the podium group, while T13 (p = 0.020) and T54 (p = 0.040) showed a significant difference in the final group. In men’s 400 m, T12 (podium: p = 0.038, final: p = 0.033) and T13 (podium: p = 0.019, final: p = 0.019) showed significant differences in both the podium and final groups, and T11 (final: p = 0.012) showed a significant difference in only the final group. T53 (podium: p = 0.034, final: p = 0.032) and T54 (podium: p = 0.019, final: p = 0.007) in men’s 400 m, and T53 (podium: p = 0.019, final: p = 0.000) and T54 (podium: p = 0.011, final: p = 0.000) in men’s 800 m showed significant differences in both the podium and final groups. In men’s 1500 m, T11 (podium p = 0.037, final: p = 0.046), T13 (podium: p = 0.016, final: p = 0.000), T46 (podium: p = 0.015, final: p = 0.003), and T54 (podium: p = 0.012, final: p = 0.000) showed significant differences in both the podium and final groups. In 5000 m, T54 (podium: p = 0.009, final: p = 0.000) showed significant differences between the podium and final groups.
3.2.2. Women’s Division Records Differences by Class in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games
As shown in Table 4, in women’s 100 m, T13 (podium: p = 0.025, final: p = 0.000) and T37 (podium: p = 0.015, final: p = 0.000) classes showed statistically significant differences in both the podium and final groups. T11 (p = 0.007), T12 (p = 0.001), T36 (p = 0.047), and T53 (p = 0.036) classes showed a significant difference in only the final group. In women’s 200 m, T12 (podium: p = 0.042, final: p = 0.002) showed significant differences in the podium and final groups, and T11 (p = 0.005) only in the final group. In women’s 400 m, T53 (podium: p = 0.022, final: p = 0.009) class showed significant differences in the podium and final groups, while T13 (p = 0.015) showed the same in the final group. In women’s 800 m, T54 (podium: p = 0.012, final: p = 0.022) showed significant differences in the podium and final groups, and T53 (p = 0.000) showed a significant difference in the final group. T54 in women’s 1500 m (podium: p = 0.012, final: p = 0.000) and T54 in women’s 5000 m (podium: p = 0.009, final: p = 0.000) showed significant differences in both the podium and final groups.
3.3. Records Trends of Podium Group by Class in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games
3.3.1. Records Trends of Men’s Division Podium Group by Class in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games
In the mean record change in the podium group in Figure 1 a record improvement trend was revealed in almost all classes, with T35 class showing the biggest record improvement. In the 400 m records were improved in all classes, while T52 class’s podium group showed the biggest improvement. However, T12 showed a trend in which records worsened until the London 2012 Paralympic Games, but records improved after that. The T13 class showed a record-improving trend along with the wheelchair racing class. In the men’s 800 m T53 showed a gradual deteriorating trend, but athletes’ records were improved from the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games. In the 1500 m event the T11, T13, and T46 classes did not show significant record change, but T54 showed improved records in the podium group. Meanwhile, T11, R13, and T46 classes maintained athletic performance levels overall.
3.3.2. Records Trends of Women’s Division Podium Group by Class in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games
When looking at women athletes’ podium group in Figure 2 record change trends, record improvement was huge in the T37 and T53 classes in the 100 m events while minimal records were improved in the remaining classes in 100 m. In the 200 m T36 did not show a considerable change, although the T11 and T12 classes’ podium group records improved in every Paralympic Games. In the 400 m the podium group’s records were improved, but the records worsened in T54. In the T53 class records were gradually improved until 2016, but they worsened again in the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games. In the 800 m the record change was significant, and the change in the podium group in the T53 class was the biggest. The 1500 m podium group’s trend in the T54 class repeated deterioration and improvement. In the 5000 m records slightly worsened, but they were sharply improved in the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games.
4. Discussion
This study was performed aiming to provide the relevant information to contribute to para athletics’ performance improvement by identifying a change in the disciplines of the Paralympic Games (2004–2020) in the para athletic track events that represented para sports, and by analyzing game record differences and athletic performance trends by the level (podium and final groups) of top-ranking men and women athletes (No. 1–No. 8) who participated in track events. Discussions according to the study results are as follows: In the difference verification of game records by class and discipline, differences were revealed in 100 m (T11, T36), 400 m (T53, T54), 800 m (T53, T54), 1500 m (T11, T13, T46, T54), and 5000 m (T54) of the podium and final groups. This indicates that athletic performance level is persistently improving in para athletics. In each impairment type, namely, visual impairment (T11, T13), wheelchair racing (T53, T54), cerebral palsy (T36), and amputation impairment (T46) types, game records were evenly improved. The athletic performance improvement seems to derive from a phenomenon where athletes participated in the remaining events from the disappeared events due to the reduction in disciplines by IPC, so competitiveness was consolidated by a concentration of athletes. It was judged that the discipline reduction and integration process from the Athens 2004 Paralympic Games to the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games affected it [1,2].
In wheelchair class, record change was larger in short rather than long distances, and the same result was found in previous studies [25]. This is also due to the increase in athletes between their teens and 30 s in the Paralympic Games, with young athletes’ participation and the equipment technology development appearing to affect records [26,27,28]. Refs. [28,29] reported that athletic performance increased with the highest ratio in the 400 m of T54 in the wheelchair class until the Rio 2016 Paralympic Games. In wheelchair racing events a sports’ scientific approach, including minimization of aerodynamic drag in various areas to improve athletic performance, led to record improvement [30]. However, as shown in Figure 1, in T54 the 1500 m of long distance in the Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games a record of 2 min and 50 s was revealed, which can be interpreted that the mean speed of the athletes’ race operation is extremely fast.
As shown in Table 1, records showed a slight deterioration in some classes and disciplines, namely in 100 m (T52, T54) and 800 m in the London 2012 Paralympic Games and 800 m (T53) in Rio 2016. There was a difference in standard deviance between the podium and final groups. This means that differences in the podium group were not significant but big in the final group, so there seemed to be differences in athletic performance. In differences in the verification of game records by class and discipline in women’s events, differences were found in the podium and final groups in 100 m (T13, T37), 200 m (T12), 400 m (T53), 800 m (T54), 1500 m (T54), and 5000 (T54). In 100 m (T11, T12, T36, T53), 200 m (T11), and 800 m (T53), significant differences were revealed in only the final group. In the case of visual impairment (VI), the athletic performance of a guide runner may be affected by the other runners’ athletic performance. Generally, during runners’ participation in an event, better results seem to be produced if a male runner with excellent athletic performance was running as a guide runner, compared to a visually impaired runner leading the running. In a record competition game, if a partner’s athletic performance is excellent the other runner can more easily maintain a higher pace than one’s own, along with a trend to follow the partner [31,32]. Athletes are participating in a record competition game train with a pacemaker in training. An opportunity can be assured to raise one’s limit if the pacemaker leads faster than one’s own in a short section. From this perspective, if a male guide runner participates in training, maintaining a high pace for a long time, then in the case of female athletes with visual impairment an advantage to improve athletic performance can be gained. Wheelchair racing athletes are not limited to either short, middle, or long distance, but they can participate together in the middle, long, and both short and middle distance. When looking at the game records of the athletes explored in this study, change in records in 800 m and the improved records in 1500 m and 5000 m could be noticed after 2008. The disciplines in which wheelchair racing athletes participate are different from those in which athletes participate in Olympic Games, so wide-spectrum participation can be a characteristic. Due to the trend, there is a need to analyze trends in other disciplines and the disciplines concerned rather than analysis on athletic performance improvement in specific disciplines in terms of athletes’ records.
As shown in Table 2, the standard deviation between the podium group and the final group of T53 and T54 classes in the 400 m and 800 m was significant. From this, differences in records within each group are predicted to be big and their standard deviation was larger than that of male athletes, as shown in Table 1. The result means that male athletes’ athletic performance was evenly formed overall, but female athletes’ standard deviation in athletic performance was significant. Such a phenomenon may imply that female athletes’ medal-winning possibility is higher than male athletes. As shown in Figure 1, records were hardly changed in male athletes’ middle-distance and long-distance events, but the records were improved in only the 1500 m. This can be viewed as a phenomenon from the ranking competition rather than record competition, due to competition for medals in Paralympic Games and middle- and long-distance events’ features. However, male and female middle- and long-distance events show different aspects because results can differ depending on race flows, so analyzing each lap’s flow is necessary.
In disciplines consecutively conducted in para athletic track events of the Paralympic Games a trend where athletes’ performance gradually improved and records were improved was revealed. On the contrary, records in some disciplines worsened. This means that game records can be slightly sluggish or can worsen due to weather effects such as rain and wind, and performing the disciplines outdoors. Due to technological development, this seems to be a phenomenon that occurs owing to changes in various environments suitable for equipment and impairment types for the athletes using prosthetics and wheelchair-racing runners in Paralympic Games. Whenever Paralympic Games are hosted, the sports equipment used by athletes is high-tech-based, so they can supplement their impairment and show excellent athletic performance in games while existing equipment became a factor to disturb athletic performance, and the athletes could not exert good athletic performance. In such an environmental change, even improvement from the good athletic performance has become a remarkable characteristic, while some excellent athletes in the past showed good athletic performance. Such a phenomenon seems to be derived from the following: As IPC reduced the number of disciplines and para athletes flew in from other disciplines, the competitiveness of the disciplines was consolidated. Game records will improve and competition will become fierce in the future Paralympic Games. This will enhance the athletes’ athletic performance, whereas game records will be improved due to technological development and diverse support. In addition, change in class can affect each discipline diversely.
The study results provide information to identify discipline changes in the para athletic track events and check the aspects and trends in athletic performance and records by classes and levels, which can be used as baseline data for athletic performance improvement. Moreover, the results can be used for countries fostering para athletics to respond to changes in track events of para athletics, identify athletic performance levels through comparison of top-ranking group athletes’ records by classes with their own country’s athletes’ records, and improve athletic performance.
This study analyzed game records between groups targeting top-ranking athletes’ records over the last five Paralympic Games, but did not reflect on the records of the athletes who participated in major international competitions except Paralympic Games; therefore, caution is necessary for the interpretation of the study results. In a further study there is a need to expand the study subjects, expand the scope, collect records targeting all participating athletes, and analyze them. A further study in which more in-depth interpretation can be carried out needs to be performed by applying various analytic study methods.
5. Conclusions
This study aims to provide baseline data to improve para athletics’ athletic performance by identifying a change in disciplines in track events of para athletics over the last five Paralympic Games (2004–2020), analyzing record differences by level (podium and final groups) between men’s and women’s disciplines, and generating information on athletic performance trends.
The data collection, processing, and analysis methods to achieve the study purpose are as follows: To check the changes in track events of para athletics in five Paralympic Games (Athens 2004 to Tokyo 2020) organized by the IPC, this study made a comparative analysis table after refining disciplines by the Paralympic Games depending on division (men’s and women’s) and class. By collecting the finals records of track disciplines carried out consecutively in the five Paralympic Games (2004–2020) by class in the men’s and women’s divisions, this study performed an analysis through a nonparametric statistical method, the Kruskal–Wallis Test. This study visualized and presented the game record trends through the analysis.
The results drawn from this study are presented below: First, as a result of analyzing the change in disciplines in para athletics’ track events disciplines showed a gradual decline. The number of track disciplines in the women’s division was increased.
Second, as a result of athletic performance difference analysis by class in the para athletic track events of each Paralympic Games (2004–2020): (1) significant differences were found in both the podium and final groups of men’s 100 m∙400 m∙1500 m (four classes), 800 m (two classes), and 5000 m (one class); (2) statistically significant differences were revealed in the podium and final groups of women’s 100 m (two classes), 200 m∙400 m∙800 m∙1500 m∙5000 m (one class) events.
Third, as a result of analyzing the record change trends of the podium group by track event disciplines and a class of para athletics: (1) Records were improved in almost all classes in the men’s division podium group’s mean record change, and T35 class showed the biggest records improvement. In the 400 m event all classes showed improved records overall except for T11 whose records slightly worsened. Moreover, the podium group in the T52 class showed the biggest improvement in records, but in the men’s 800 m (T53) records gradually worsened and improved from the Rio 2016. In the 1500 m T54 showed improved records in the podium group. (2) As a result of the women’s podium group’s record trend analysis, record improvement was big in T47 and T53 classes, and the remaining classes showed minimal improvement in records. In the T11 and T12 classes in 200 m records in the podium group were improved in each Paralympic Games, but T36 did now show a significant change. In the 400 m records showed improvement, but T54 showed deterioration in records. In T53, records gradually improved until 2016 but worsened again in the Tokyo 2020. In the 800 m, the T53 podium group’s change was the biggest.
In conclusion, as Paralympic Games continued the number of disciplines declined in the men’s division, but records showed an improving trend. As the number of disciplines decreased athletes went to other disciplines, so competition became fierce and competitiveness was judged to improve. Meanwhile, the number of disciplines in the women’s division is rising. This is because the number of disciplines increased depending on classes, and IPC’s primary strategy to enhance female athletes’ participation rate was reflected. The trend was remarkable after 2012.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, M.-C.K. and S.-M.H.; methodology, M.-C.K. and S.-M.H.; software, M.-C.K.; validation, M.-C.K.; formal analysis, S.-M.H.; investigation, M.-C.K., S.-M.H.; resources, S.-M.H.; data curation, M.-C.K. and S.-M.H.; writing—original draft preparation, M.-C.K. and S.-M.H.; writing—review and editing, M.-C.K.; visualization, M.-C.K. and S.-M.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable for studies not involving humans or animals.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Figure 1.
Men’s Division Records Change Trends in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games.
Figure 2.
Women’s Division Record Change Trend in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games.
Table 1.
Changes in Men’s Division Disciplines in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games.
| Event | Classification | Paralympic Game | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2004 Athens | 2008 Beijing | 2012 London | 2016 Rio | 2020 Tokyo | ||
| 100 m | T11 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| T12 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T13 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T33 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T34 | x | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T35 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T36 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T37 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T38 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T42 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T44 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T46 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T47 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T51 | x | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T52 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T53 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T63 | x | x | x | x | ○ | |
| T64 | x | x | x | x | ○ | |
| 200 m | T11 | ○ | ○ | x | ○ | x |
| T12 | ○ | ○ | x | ○ | x | |
| T13 | ○ | ○ | x | x | x | |
| T34 | x | x | ○ | x | x | |
| T35 | ○ | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T36 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T37 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | ○ | |
| T38 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T42 | ○ | x | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T44 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T46 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T51 | ○ | x | x | x | ○ | |
| T52 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T53 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | x | x | x | |
| T61 | x | x | x | x | ○ | |
| T64 | x | x | x | x | ○ | |
| 400 m | T11 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| T12 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T13 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T20 | ○ | ○ | ||||
| T36 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T37 | ○ | ○ | ○ | |||
| T38 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T44 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T46 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T47 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T51 | x | x | x | ○ | ||
| T52 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T53 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| 800 m | T12 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x |
| T13 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T34 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T36 | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T37 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T38 | ○ | x | x | x | x | |
| T46 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T52 | x | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T53 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| 1500 m | T11 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| T13 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T20 | x | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T36 | ○ | x | x | x | x | |
| T37 | ○ | x | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T38 | x | x | x | ○ | x | |
| T46 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T52 | ○ | x | x | x | ○ | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| 5000 m | T11 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| T12 | ○ | x | ○ | x | x | |
| T13 | ○ | ○ | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T46 | ○ | ○ | x | x | x | |
| T52 | ○ | x | x | x | x | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| 10,000 m | T11 | ○ | x | x | x | x |
| T12 | x | ○ | x | x | x | |
| T13 | ○ | x | x | x | x | |
| T54 | ○ | x | x | x | x | |
○: an event held in the discipline; x: removed in the discipline.
Table 2.
Changes in Women’s Division Track Disciplines in the Paralympic Games.
| Event | Classification | Paralympic Game | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2004 Athens | 2008 Beijing | 2012 London | 2016 Rio | 2020 Tokyo | ||
| 100 m | T11 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| T12 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T13 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T34 | ○ | x | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T35 | x | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T36 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T37 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T38 | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T42 | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T44 | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T46 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T47 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T52 | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T53 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T63 | x | x | x | x | ○ | |
| T64 | x | x | x | x | ○ | |
| 200 m | T11 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| T12 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T13 | x | ○ | x | x | x | |
| T34 | ○ | x | ○ | x | x | |
| T35 | x | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T36 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T37 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | ○ | |
| T38 | x | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T44 | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | |
| T46 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | ||
| T47 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T52 | ○ | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T53 | x | ○ | ○ | x | x | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | x | x | x | |
| T64 | x | x | x | x | ○ | |
| 400 m | T11 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ |
| T12 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T13 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T20 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T34 | x | x | x | ○ | x | |
| T37 | x | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T38 | ○ | x | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T44 | x | x | x | ○ | x | |
| T46 | ○ | x | ○ | x | x | |
| T47 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T52 | ○ | x | x | ○ | x | |
| T53 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| 800 m | T12 | ○ | ○ | x | x | x |
| T34 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T53 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| 1500 m | T11 | x | x | x | ○ | ○ |
| T12 | ○ | x | ○ | x | x | |
| T13 | x | ○ | x | ○ | ○ | |
| T20 | x | x | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| T54 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | |
| 5000 m | T54 | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
○: an event held in the discipline; x: removed in the discipline.
Table 3.
Men’s Division Differences by Class in the Track Events of the Paralympic Games (s).
| Men’s | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Event | Class | 2004Athens(SD) | 2008Beijing(SD) | 2012London(SD) | 2016Rio(SD) | 2020Tokyo(SD) | p-Value | |
| 100 m | T11 | Podium | 00:11.62(.19) | 00:11.28(.22) | 00:11.23(.05) | 00:11.06(.06) | 00:10.92(.11) | 0.027 * |
| Final | 00:11.77(.16) | 00:11.35(.23) | 00:11.26(.08) | 00:11.13(.14) | 00:10.92(.11) | 0.001 ** | ||
| T12 | Podium | 00:10.90(.13) | 00:10.93(.04) | 00:10.87(.05) | 00:11.15(.22) | 00:10.66(.23) | 0.045 * | |
| Final | 00:11.13(.22) | 00:10.96(.05) | 00:10.95(.17) | 00:11.24(.25) | 00:10.80(.34) | 0.066 | ||
| T13 | Podium | 00:11.09(.13) | 00:10.83(.19) | 00:10.84(.33) | 00:10.75(.10) | 00:10.57(.06) | 0.119 | |
| Final | 00:11.24(.16) | 00:11.00(.18) | 00:11.07(.27) | 00:11.02(.28) | 00:10.80(.21) | 0.020 * | ||
| T35 | Podium | 00:13.26(.19) | 00:12.55(.27) | 00:12.95(.28) | 00:11.51(.05) | 00:11.54(.19) | 0.017 * | |
| Final | 00:13.97(.83) | 00:13.27(.68) | 00:13.32(.39) | 00:11.76(.27) | 00:12.09(.64) | 0.000 *** | ||
| T36 | Podium | 00:12.53(.06) | 00:12.33(.07) | 00:12.19(.10) | 00:12.27(.24) | 00:11.96(.09) | 0.037 * | |
| Final | 00:12.75(.28) | 00:12.49(.18) | 00:12.39(.25) | 00:12.61(.35) | 00:12.19(.24) | 0.006 * | ||
| T37 | Podium | 00:12.35(.15) | 00:11.91(.09) | 00:11.53(.03) | 00:11.51(.05) | 00:11.15(.18) | 0.012 * | |
| Final | 00:12.55(.21) | 00:12.30(.33) | 00:11.65(.15) | 00:11.76(.27) | 00:11.37(.23) | 0.000 *** | ||
| T38 | Podium | 00:11.55(.15) | 00:11.09(.12) | 00:11.04(.22) | 00:10.99(.26) | 00:10.98(.03) | 0.123 | |
| Final | 00:11.81(.31) | 00:11.50(.39) | 00:11.96(01.52) | 00:11.29(.37) | 00:11.38(.34) | 0.151 | ||
| T52 | Podium | 00:17.53(.28) | 00:17.58(.16) | 00:17.55(.49) | 00:17.37(.28) | 00:17.20(.23) | 0.395 | |
| Final | 00:18.63(01.47) | 00:18.23(.87) | 00:18.34(.73) | 00:17.92(.48) | 00:18.08(01.02) | 0.694 | ||
| T53 | Podium | 00:15.13(.14) | 00:14.91(.16) | 00:15.01(.23) | 00:14.70(.22) | 00:14.50(.28) | 0.096 | |
| Final | 00:15.45(.36) | 00:15.14(.22) | 00:15.25(.25) | 00:14.95(.28) | 00:15.10(.52) | 0.123 | ||
| T54 | Podium | 00:14.28(.08) | 00:14.02(.21) | 00:13.94(.16) | 00:14.08(.17) | 00:13.83(.06) | 0.078 | |
| Final | 00:14.61(.35) | 00:14.34(.31) | 00:14.36(.42) | 00:14.31(.25) | 00:14.05(.24) | 0.040 * | ||
| 400 m | T11 | Podium | 00:51.89(.70) | 00:50.51(.28) | 00:51.55(.86) | 00:50.41(.21) | 00:51.10(.66) | 0.073 |
| Final | 00:53.17(01.40) | 00:50.90(.80) | 00:51.55(.86) | 00:50.54(.31) | 00:51.37(.76) | 0.012 * | ||
| T12 | Podium | 00:49.28(.39) | 00:49.93(.42) | 00:50.57(01.02) | 00:49.04(.49) | 00:47.84(.22) | 0.038 * | |
| Final | 00:50.66(01.83) | 00:49.93(.42) | 00:50.57(01.02) | 00:49.30(.66) | 00:48.12(.57) | 0.033 * | ||
| T13 | Podium | 00:50.42(.57) | 00:49.54(.44) | 00:48.96(.44) | 00:47.47(.50) | 00:47.72(01.03) | 0.019 * | |
| Final | 00:55.00(08.63) | 00:50.11(.65) | 00:49.92(01.14) | 00:48.84(01.37) | 00:49.21(01.44) | 0.019 * | ||
| T36 | Podium | 00:56.82(01.34) | 00:55.14(.88) | 00:54.24(.94) | 00:55.28(.69) | 00:53.72(.98) | 0.092 | |
| Final | 00:58.87(02.43) | 00:57.23(01.87) | 00:57.54(03.50) | 00:56.83(01.97) | 00:55.61(02.27) | 0.222 | ||
| T38 | Podium | 00:51.75(.50) | 00:51.85(.66) | 00:51.32(.80) | 00:50.39(.00) | 00:50.39(.43) | 0.104 | |
| Final | 00:53.40(01.72) | 00:57.81(13.35) | 00:54.23(05.98) | 00:52.49(02.21) | 00:51.63(01.44) | 0.262 | ||
| T52 | Podium | 01:01.53(.53) | 00:59.33(01.81) | 01:01.19(03.13) | 00:59.82(02.04) | 00:56.98(02.58) | 0.182 | |
| Final | 01:02.54(01.73) | 01:01.87(02.77) | 01:05.52(05.39) | 01:02.58(02.66) | 00:59.31(03.10) | 0.103 | ||
| T53 | Podium | 00:50.18(.24) | 00:48.34(.63) | 00:50.04(.29) | 00:48.48(.55) | 00:47.59(01.58) | 0.034 * | |
| Final | 00:51.20(01.07) | 00:49.83(01.37) | 00:50.87(.78) | 00:49.81(01.22) | 00:49.35(01.90) | 0.032 * | ||
| T54 | Podium | 00:47.62(.15) | 00:45.98(.90) | 00:47.12(.24) | 00:46.84(.21) | 00:45.88(.27) | 0.019 * | |
| Final | 00:48.30(.69) | 00:47.42(01.37) | 00:48.07(01.47) | 00:47.24(.40) | 00:46.67(.74) | 0.007 * | ||
| 800 m | T53 | Podium | 01:38.74(.09) | 01:36.95(.59) | 01:41.29(.19) | 01:40.95(.16) | 01:37.35(02.01) | 0.019 * |
| Final | 01:39.82(01.57) | 01:37.40(.50) | 01:42.16(.83) | 01:42.58(03.32) | 01:40.25(03.48) | 0.000 *** | ||
| T54 | Podium | 01:32.55(.11) | 01:36.83(.26) | 01:37.99(.46) | 01:34.49(.65) | 01:33.99(.27) | 0.011 * | |
| Final | 01:32.77(.22) | 01:37.54(.78) | 01:38.82(01.01) | 01:34.99(.67) | 01:35.13(01.92) | 0.000 *** | ||
| 1500 m | T11 | Podium | 04:12.46(03.37) | 04:11.45(01.27) | 04:03.20(04.61) | 04:04.17(01.12) | 04:02.81(04.51) | 0.037 * |
| Final | 04:17.58(06.53) | 04:14.62(05.19) | 04:07.84(06.45) | 04:07.35(04.52) | 04:11.30(10.96) | 0.046 * | ||
| T13 | Podium | 03:53.30(01.94) | 04:06.50(.45) | 03:48.98(.75) | 03:48.79(.70) | 03:54.43(.34) | 0.016 * | |
| Final | 04:02.75(07.65) | 04:09.35(02.97) | 03:55.93(06.70) | 03:55.63(05.81) | 03:58.01(03.56) | 0.000 *** | ||
| T46 | Podium | 04:00.86(01.83) | 03:53.20(.61) | 03:50.94(.83) | 04:00.47(.95) | 03:52.74(.72) | 0.015 * | |
| Final | 04:08.17(06.49) | 04:04.06(14.87) | 03:57.96(04.70) | 04:09.07(11.40) | 03:59.99(06.48) | 0.003 * | ||
| T54 | Podium | 03:05.22(.31) | 03:11.77(02.18) | 03:12.33(.24) | 03:00.71(.13) | 02:50.14(.57) | 0.012 * | |
| Final | 03:05.86(.50) | 03:14.04(02.97) | 03:13.10(.81) | 03:01.36(.60) | 02:51.56(01.50) | 0.000 *** | ||
| 5000 m | T11 | Podium | 15:36.62(27.30) | 15:35.60(10.32) | 15:38.53(15.01) | 15:18.87(03.61) | 15:17.59(03.73) | 0.161 |
| Final | 16:12.75(31.85) | 16:04.89(32.81) | 16:09.25(25.21) | 15:53.95(37.15) | 15:59.83(52.39) | 0.554 | ||
| T54 | Podium | 10:24.14(.21) | 10:22.79(.36) | 11:07.87(.21) | 11:02.04(.33) | 10:30.15(.24) | 0.009 * | |
| Final | 10:25.47(01.01) | 10:24.38(01.45) | 11:08.95(01.06) | 11:03.30(02.22) | 10:30.83(.99) | 0.000 *** | ||
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
Table 4.
Changes in Women’s Division Track Disciplines in the Paralympic Games (sec).
| Women’s | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Event | Class | 2004_Athens(SD) | 2008_Beijing(SD) | 2012_London(SD) | 2016_Rio(SD) | 2020_Tokyo(SD) | p-Value | |
| 100 m | T11 | Podium | 00:12.94(.40) | 00:12.57(.37) | 00:12.51(.43) | 00:12.00(.06) | 00:12.10(.07) | 0.081 |
| Final | 00:13.71(01.07) | 00:12.93(.36) | 00:12.58(.38) | 00:12.00(.06) | 00:12.10(.07) | 0.007 * | ||
| T12 | Podium | 00:12.49(.19) | 00:12.49(.10) | 00:12.12(.07) | 00:11.70(.30) | 00:12.01(.51) | 0.052 | |
| Final | 00:13.02(.47) | 00:12.75(.25) | 00:12.14(.07) | 00:11.84(.37) | 00:12.14(.49) | 0.001 ** | ||
| T13 | Podium | 00:12.80(.22) | 00:12.43(.14) | 00:12.29(.26) | 00:11.98(.23) | 00:12.01(.06) | 0.025 * | |
| Final | 00:13.28(.51) | 00:12.59(.18) | 00:12.73(.49) | 00:12.30(.34) | 00:12.25(.21) | 0.000 *** | ||
| T36 | Podium | 00:14.91(.90) | 00:14.74(.82) | 00:14.67(.22) | 00:14.60(.13) | 00:14.28(.58) | 0.598 | |
| Final | 00:16.50(02.53) | 00:15.35(.70) | 00:15.07(.45) | 00:15.23(.73) | 00:14.76(.57) | 0.047 * | ||
| T37 | Podium | 00:14.61(.21) | 00:14.21(.07) | 00:14.22(.14) | 00:13.48(.36) | 00:13.11(.10) | 0.015* | |
| Final | 00:15.15(.79) | 00:14.70(.45) | 00:14.35(.13) | 00:13.94(.51) | 00:13.59(.47) | 0.000 *** | ||
| T53 | Podium | 00:17.58(.32) | 00:16.93(.74) | 00:16.82(.37) | 00:16.46(.16) | 00:16.43(.13) | 0.153 | |
| Final | 00:18.04(.60) | 00:17.67(.76) | 00:17.68(.00) | 00:16.99(.50) | 00:17.04(.56) | 0.036 * | ||
| T54 | Podium | 00:16.65(.30) | 00:16.20(.05) | 00:15.94(.18) | 00:16.12(.11) | 00:16.05(.24) | 0.065 | |
| Final | 00:17.31(.64) | 00:16.56(.40) | 00:16.76(.89) | 00:16.48(.46) | 00:16.46(.43) | 0.094 | ||
| 200 m | T11 | Podium | 00:25.90(.71) | 00:25.54(.49) | 00:25.82(.87) | 00:24.78(.25) | 00:25.02(.14) | 0.139 |
| Final | 00:27.70(01.85) | 00:26.70(01.10) | 00:26.03(.82) | 00:24.78(.25) | 00:25.09(.17) | 0.005 * | ||
| T12 | Podium | 00:25.73(.55) | 00:24.94(.13) | 00:24.67(.21) | 00:23.50(.40) | 00:24.12(.97) | 0.042 * | |
| Final | 00:27.05(01.26) | 00:25.19(.45) | 00:24.73(.21) | 00:23.80(.69) | 00:24.41(.98) | 0.002 * | ||
| T36 | Podium | 00:30.96(02.05) | 00:31.16(01.46) | 00:31.14(.92) | 00:30.31(01.36) | 00:29.68(01.39) | 0.509 | |
| Final | 00:35.16(06.02) | 00:32.44(01.52) | 00:32.43(01.79) | 00:31.70(01.76) | 00:30.91(01.51) | 0.161 | ||
| 400 m | T12 | Podium | 00:56.22(02.21) | 00:55.99(.98) | 00:56.53(01.72) | 00:52.93(01.08) | 00:54.99(02.26) | 0.204 |
| Final | 00:59.02(03.64) | 00:58.18(03.16) | 01:07.33(21.65) | 00:54.11(02.52) | 00:55.66(02.29) | 0.219 | ||
| T13 | Podium | 00:59.36(01.36) | 00:55.98(.37) | 00:56.29(01.01) | 00:56.29(.45) | 00:55.77(.92) | 0.093 | |
| Final | 01:02.80(03.64) | 00:58.16(02.59) | 00:59.18(03.94) | 00:58.08(02.56) | 00:56.93(01.13) | 0.015 * | ||
| T53 | Podium | 00:58.42(01.12) | 00:55.65(01.01) | 00:56.13(.70) | 00:54.95(.45) | 00:56.91(.63) | 0.022 * | |
| Final | 01:00.83(02.35) | 00:57.94(02.37) | 00:58.72(04.28) | 00:56.05(01.40) | 00:58.18(01.55) | 0.009 * | ||
| T54 | Podium | 00:53.38(01.45) | 00:53.41(01.35) | 00:54.88(01.71) | 00:54.17(.76) | 00:53.87(.26) | 0.779 | |
| Final | 00:55.73(02.55) | 00:55.35(01.96) | 00:56.44(01.71) | 00:55.24(01.24) | 00:55.02(01.25) | 0.358 | ||
| 800 m | T53 | Podium | 01:59.63(.63) | 01:57.27(.03) | 01:53.02(.15) | 01:47.62(.16) | 01:47.18(01.04) | 0.102 |
| Final | 02:03.26(06.13) | 01:59.68(02.70) | 01:53.60(.60) | 01:49.20(02.12) | 01:49.28(02.37) | 0.000 *** | ||
| T54 | Podium | 01:51.18(.70) | 01:46.74(01.45) | 01:49.06(01.79) | 01:44.99(.25) | 01:43.47(.85) | 0.012 * | |
| Final | 01:52.16(01.09) | 01:49.15(02.33) | 01:51.72(03.57) | 01:46.99(02.99) | 01:48.50(04.87) | 0.022 * | ||
| 1500 m | T54 | Podium | 03:27.00(.96) | 03:40.63(.65) | 03:36.74(.31) | 03:22.59(.09) | 03:27.96(.31) | 0.012 * |
| Final | 03:29.09(.98) | 03:41.90(01.29) | 03:37.81(.93) | 03:24.87(02.46) | 03:30.55(03.97) | 0.000 *** | ||
| 5000 m | T54 | Podium | 11:59.75(.27) | 12:29.16(.14) | 12:28.01(.20) | 11:54.25(.15) | 11:02.73(11.44) | 0.009 * |
| Final | 12:33.73(46.11) | 12:30.38(01.33) | 12:28.78(.57) | 11:59.44(08.19) | 11:15.19(12.95) | 0.000 *** | ||
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.
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Kim, M.-C.; Hong, S.-M. A Comparative Analysis Study on Para Athletics’ Track Discipline Change and Performance Trend in the Paralympic Games (2004–2020). Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 12904. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412904
AMA Style
Kim M-C, Hong S-M. A Comparative Analysis Study on Para Athletics’ Track Discipline Change and Performance Trend in the Paralympic Games (2004–2020). Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(24):12904. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412904
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Min-Chang, and Suk-Man Hong. 2022. "A Comparative Analysis Study on Para Athletics’ Track Discipline Change and Performance Trend in the Paralympic Games (2004–2020)" Applied Sciences 12, no. 24: 12904. https://doi.org/10.3390/app122412904
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