1. Introduction
As a critical transportation sector which accounts for estimated 80% of the volume of world trade [
1], the shipping industry has been striving to reduce the environmental footprint in recognition of climate change challenges. In April 2018, International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted an Initial IMO Strategy on reduction of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) from ships, aiming that we should reduce the total annual GHG emissions by at least 50% by 2050 compared to 2008 and further strengthen the energy-efficiency (EE) design requirements for ships [
2]. EE in shipping is defined as energy used per transported goods and distance, e.g., kg of fuel per tonne cargo and nautical mile [
3]. It is a multi-facetted issue and the ability of a vessel to decrease GHG emissions is a coordinated effort between speed control, navigational decisions, engine maintenance, hull resistance, propeller efficiency, scrubber systems etc. However, for the purposes of this paper, it is simplified as describing this as a sub-system which is directed at examining how speed governance can be regulated and predicted using machine-learning techniques. The intensification of EE, i.e., decreased fuel consumption while maintaining at least the same level of transportation services, is considered as a significant contributor as it could lead to reductions of 25% to 75% of CO
2 emission, according to an IMO GHG study [
4]. In addition to the environmental concerns, decreases in fuel consumption are also important to the economic sustainability of shipping companies [
5].
There are multiple factors that could impact EE revealed by previous maritime research, such as optimizing weather routing (e.g., reducing resistance considering the wind, waves and current), minimizing rudder usage with adaptive autopilot settings, optimizing quantity of ballast water carried and optimizing trim and draft for lowest hull resistance [
6,
7]. Some research suggests that the most significant saving comes from voyage speed optimization—by lowering the speed by 10% the vessel can save approximately 20% in propulsion fuel consumption [
6].
It has also been observed that the ship’s crew usually have a direct and considerable impact on EE through their operational practices [
3,
8,
9]. For example, as punctuality is critical for ferry vessels, the crew need to find the proper balance between fuel consumption at lower speeds and the direct and indirect costs of delayed port arrival [
3]. However, insufficient knowledge and awareness of the practitioners and management are commonly identified to be one of the most critical gaps in making energy-saving decisions [
5,
7,
10,
11,
12,
13]. The challenges in the maritime energy field are characterized by elements such as compromised quality and low level of awareness of information [
13,
14], inadequate data analysis and actionabilities of improved operational measures [
15], under-developed management standards [
16], information asymmetries and power structures within organizations [
17]. In the maritime organizational context these gaps are usually multiplied as the today’s shipping industry essentially operates under a top-down management system [
11] in which the practitioners’ voices were not typically considered in ship–shore communications [
18]. All these considerations constitute the complexity in the EE domain. But what methodological tools do researchers possess to understand the complexity existing within the domain?
The application of ethnographic research can contribute to a better understanding of EE practices, however, these approaches have been largely ignored within a technology-driven industry. In the maritime EE domain, an important advantage for taking such an epistemological approach is to move researchers closer to the tacit knowledge, norms, understandings and assumptions that are considered by the ship’s crew during their work and are influential in forming the basis for decisions and practices that support systems design [
19]. The importance of applied ethnography is frequently underestimated within a sociotechnical perspective. One example is that speed is usually considered as an important factor for EE which is relevant to decreased time to port. However, with in-depth interviews, it was revealed that ship–shore–port communication, time constraints for ship operators, means for predicting energy use, consequences of the breach of the rules of punctuality, as examples, all play a role in this complex sociotechnical system [
3]. Sampson and Poulsen’s recent study showed that cargo-owners’ decisions can increase emissions because the speed choice for tankers can be strongly limited by cargo-owner’s commercial considerations [
20]. Many other studies have also shown that EE operation of the vessels can become irregular and complex as the picture is influenced by multiple actors and their relationships. There could be involvement of multiple stakeholders [
21], goal or demand conflicts with EE operations (thus limiting the “maneuverability” for officers on board) [
22], gaps in inter-department collaborations [
23,
24], social barriers in communities of practice [
12,
25], lack of trust between ship and shore organizations (thus downgrading the organizational practice) [
26], etc. These insights in the EE domain can be captured by ethnographic research or its associated “thick data” approaches [
27] (i.e., “a sticky stuff that is difficult to quantify” but “offers incredible depth of meanings and stories” [
28]). It is important perceive and understand these ethnographic inquiries within the context of sociotechnical systems, so that we may make sense of the needs, requirements and even obtain inspirations for system design.
Unfortunately, such ethnographic inquiries and efforts usually stop before going to the nitty-gritty world of technical design and implementation for decision support systems, leaving the notorious issue of “implications for design” [
29] and creating a “research-practice gap” [
30]. This is essentially making the designers and engineers of technical systems used onboard the goalkeepers, as they seem to be the only ones that can influence the design and use of the technology at the “sharp end”. In fact technology is but one essential part of the sociotechnical system [
31] and it is vital that the design of the technological artefacts should consider these ethnographic inquiries. While EE performance monitoring, evaluation, prediction and decision support for improved operational and management practices is becoming increasingly important, it is also necessary to realize that this process of data collection and analysis is becoming increasingly difficult due to lack of appropriate energy consumption monitoring means and practices [
9,
15]. In the past several decades, many technology-centered solutions have thus been introduced to the maritime domain for better data analysis and management practices. In particular, some state-of-the-art machine-learning based approaches [
32,
33,
34,
35,
36] were proposed to take advantage of big data in the energy field to improve EE and provide better decision support. The pace of this introduction is even accelerating in the wave of digitalization and full automation [
37]. The increasing volume and diversity of ship energy consumption-related data are challenging the shipping industry to face a new landscape [
38], entering a new era where data becomes the new oil and big data analytics becomes the means to generate novel services that can allow better performance evaluation, prediction and decision-making support [
39,
40,
41]. There are some practical issues that ethnographic research cannot deliver alone without diving into the sea of big data analytics [
35], which is an increasingly popular and important tool for tackling complexity in shipping.
However, this does not mean that big data analytics is the panacea. Understanding the EE practices and barriers in shipping is crucial [
42] and it requires the work of ethnography or ethnomethodology that are essentially concerned about learning “tacit knowledge” and everyday social practice in the field [
43]. There is a complementary relationship between ethnography and big data [
44]. Unfortunately, almost all these state-of-the-art big data models were developed as a result of “decontextualization” by adhering to the physical law—they never (or never tried) associated with the disciplines of ethnography or ethnomethodology. For instance, it is extremely rare to see an interdisciplinary work in the maritime EE domain which machine-learning engineers cite ethnographic research work that allows big data analytics to be inspired by the thick data. Typical machine learning-oriented studies in the EE domain [
32,
33] did not really ground their ideas and feature selection in the model’s training phase on the insights produced by ethnographic research. This approach may raise serious issues that implemented technical solutions would never become truly useful [
45] as the users’ real needs, experienced pains and use-of-context were “decontextualized” in the first place.
The review of literature above suggests that research that takes an interdisciplinary approach to understand operational EE gaps, as well as inform the design of a navigational decision support system, is rather scarce. Would it be possible to have an interdisciplinary research practice that uses ethnographic research to inform big data analytics (or at least inspire the need) and decision support system design in the field of maritime energy efficiency? Could we have a research practice that covers a holistic process of design, from the exploration in the field to technical implementation in the lab? What could be the value of a pluralistic epistemology embedded in an interdisciplinary research? This paper strives to provide insight into these questions by taking an exploratory approach to examine a case regarding maritime energy-efficiency optimization.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a paradigm to understand how applied ethnographic research could inform big data analytics (or at least the need) for designing a better decision support system in maritime energy context. It also aims to shape a promising space for future maritime energy research with a richer methodological framework. The following section describes the overarching methodological framework that is referenced to base the authors’ choices of methods at different stages and chart the exploratory path in a specific maritime EE context.
2. Methods
To better conduct this interdisciplinary research, the authors of the papers comprise ethnographic researchers with essential knowledge in machine learning and technical engineers with deep insights in ethnographic studies and maritime operations, who have been working together in a collaborative manner since the start of the research project. The well-known “Double Diamond” design process and innovation framework, which was adapted from the divergence-convergence model proposed in 1996 by Banathy [
46] and later popularized by the British Design Council starting in 2004 [
47], was employed to guide this interdisciplinary study, undertaking an ethnographic study on ferry vessels and applying big data analytics for EE optimization (see
Figure 1).
An ethnographic study regarding the actual use of an advanced technological artefact used on ferry vessels (a commercial EE monitoring system) is positioned in the first diamond to understand a real problem onboard ship. This problem was co-investigated with Viktorelius who studied the same ferry vessels [
8,
12]. Ethnographic research is deemed as a qualitative method to understand human behaviors in their everyday practices [
48]. Essential ethnographic methods include participatory observations and interviews, trying to discover the meanings behind the actors’ behaviors and beliefs [
49]. Although this form of qualitative research may generate small data sets in quantity, the data is “thick” and delivers in-depth insights about the observed patterns and phenomenon [
28,
44]. Because doing ethnographic research means that the researchers need to be immersed in the fieldwork and see the things through the lenses of the field workers [
43], it enables the research team to
discover insights into the problem onboard and
define areas to focus on, e.g., make sense of what is happening, how the crew members are using the technology or alter the way it is used, what detailed problems emerge in the whole interaction process, what is the underlying tacit knowledge or the taken-for-granted realities of everyday working life in navigation and energy saving, whether there is a need or opportunities for big data analytics onboard ships in the area of EE and if so, how the ethnographic study can inform the use of big data analytics to optimize EE operations and decision support system design. The answers to these questions will have a significant impact in consideration of the second diamond, even potentially the methodological choices. From this perspective, this holistic research paradigm in this paper is rather exploratory.
Big data analytics were initially situated in the second diamond as a potentially useful method to cope with the specific problem that were identified and defined in the first diamond. The research team needs to review the ethnographic study’s findings and request relevant data from the shipping company in order to develop corresponding machine learning-based solutions that may have the potential to address the observed issue (or at least make an improvement of the current situation). The findings of the experiments will also be delivered to the shipping company as the basis for future research and development.
3. An Ethnographic Study on Ferry Vessels
To explore the practical energy-saving issues in the use of advanced technologies, the authors of this paper planned an ethnographic study and visited the ferry ships owned by a collaborating ferry company. The company introduced a commercial fuel consumption monitoring system called ETA-pilot to assist the navigators to regulate the speed automatically, as speed is directly related to fuel consumption. Voyages had been divided into multiple legs with fixed positions (waypoints). The ETA-pilot proposed an optimal speed setting for each leg of the journey, based on multiple factors (e.g., ship trim/draft, depth of the water, weather information, distance to the destination and estimated time of arrival, etc.). The speed can also be adjusted by the navigators as course and speed deviations may be required to follow collision avoidance regulations. The fuel consumption (per nautical mile) is displayed as a dynamic curve along with other output parameters in a complex line chart at the bottom of the user interface, while the total consumption is displayed on the top right corner (see
Figure 2).
In ethnographic study fieldwork, all research team members were learning to become functioning members of the practitioners’ community of practice through introspection and intersubjective inquiry in order to better “percolate” the tacit knowledge to the surface [
43]. The authors actively observed how the deck and engineering officers worked in situ, documented the context of use and their purpose of use in their everyday work and interviewed them to understand their perceptions of how this seemingly advanced technology influenced their knowledge and awareness in saving fuel. Documentation from observations, interviews and other sources of information were sought and used because no single source of information could be trusted to provide a comprehensive perspective on the whole user experience [
43]. Using a combination of these data collection approaches enabled the research team to validate and crosscheck findings.
What was observed as a significant finding was that the bridge crew frequently disabled the ETA-pilot and manually set the speed and course based on their tacit knowledge around the condition of weather and dynamic traffic situation, claiming that they could improve upon fuel consumption. It was observed that they were frequently monitoring speed, course and wind situation. A higher speed is usually preferred as the commercial risk of a delay is very high, considering the requirements on punctuality, but they were also aware that a higher speed could lead to more fuel consumption, especially in shallow water and head wind. The crew did not base their decision on whether to deactivate the ETA-pilot or which speed to set on formulas, but instead, they relied heavily on traditional navigational instruments and their own navigational experience to maneuver the ship. Much of the voyage and post-voyage information provided by the ETA-pilot was not observed being used by the crew members. On one occasion the captain was actively introducing the features of the ETA-pilot to the research team, but because he realized he had received some wrong information about the weather (which was required to be put into the machine for it to function properly), he had to turn off the ETA-pilot completely before departure.
That enthusiasm of using the tool was not common amongst the crew members. Instead many of them pointed out that the underuse of the toolbox was subject to a lack of trust and usable information—it was difficult to know if the tool was indeed helpful for reducing the fuel consumption or not as there was no benchmarks for comparison, let alone decision support. A fancy line chart was plotted on the display but almost no seafarers used and reviewed it during or after a journey. A tool may be functionally powerful but if it does not address the true needs or failed to be integrated into the work practice, it will be risking becoming an ornamental bauble. During the voyage, the ETA-pilot basically only presented two easily readable information sources that the navigators could instantly monitor without much cognitive effort: the consumption rate and total fuel consumption. But according to the navigators, such information can hardly be used for real-time self-evaluation and navigational decision support in an eco-driving manner, which was explicitly mentioned multiple times during the interviews as their “wish-list”. The tool did not really provide the users a learning space for knowledge and awareness improvement. Several navigators commented that if the ETA-pilot could see some sort of fuel consumption prediction they might be able to be more proactive instead of being reactive in navigation choices. In addition, there could be many traffic situations in which the master mariner felt it was necessary to increase the maneuverability by increasing the speed, which could lead to more fuel consumption. Under these circumstances, they did not really mind the consequence of burning more fuel. To them safety always overrides EE goal. There appeared to be no incentives or information feedback to allow them to make more deliberate efforts to save fuel within their safety boundaries. All these technical configurations and dynamic situations revealed parts of their context of use. The use of the ETA-pilot was opportunistic at best. From the design and use of the tool’s perspective, a prominent issue began to surface: the operational choice for navigational strategies have a considerable impact on fuel consumption [
8,
13], but there is an absence of efficient monitoring in a real voyage environment because the navigators did not get sufficient analytical support from the existing EE monitoring tool.
This gap was not bound to the ship side. According to the supplier of the ETA-pilot system, the recorded real-time data on fuel consumption and weather condition were transferred to the shore-side for possible further analysis and hopefully EE optimization suggestions could be delivered back to the ship. However, the crew members expressed that they never received such feedback from the supplier except the overarching requirement to save fuel or taking the training course of the ETA-pilot on how to undertake eco-driving with its “decision support functionalities”. Once the vessel had reached her destination, that was the end of the role for this technology. Both the real-time decision support system and evaluating activities were missing. This phenomenon was also noted by Viktorelius who was involved in the ethnographic studies on the same vessels too, concluding that this was a problem of “underdevelopment of evaluating activities” or “inadequate knowledge” [
12].
One of the authors of this paper also had a chance to interview the designer of the ETA-pilot. The designer explained that that there was no universal optimal use of this decision support tool but this depended upon the navigator’s own experience and interpretation, as there are many factors that the current algorithm of the tool cannot universally account for, e.g., different routes, different efficiency from different propellers, different potentials to save fuel on different ships; the tool was not developed in a way that it can dynamically “learn” from the historical data and provide real-time decision support for eco-driving (although it does have some predictive capability such as adjusting speed based on depth of the water and manually input weather information etc.). The designer admitted that such needs may be considered in its future development.
Overall, the lack of performance evaluation and decision support has contributed to the unexpected EE practice (advanced technologies being not used most of the time) and potential issues in reducing fuel consumption, whereas the shipping company/developer of the tool seemed to lack the competence or resources to analyze the large amount of data that was generated during voyages. The ethnographic study did not only help to identify some particular parameters of concern (speed, course, wind, fuel consumption), but also identified some actual gaps in the use of a “black-box” technology and needs of the users in their actual daily work for improved EE performance.
The most important insight is perhaps the associations made from the “first diamond” to the “second diamond” informed by the findings of the ethnographic studies. The idea and need of using big data analytics for better decision support for EE optimization in this context was much appreciated. It may introduce some changes that is important for the system improvement. The findings discovered that (at least) the current design and implementation of the tool had an intrinsic lack of capacity to enable improved operational practice regarding EE. This actual deficiency of the EE monitoring tool, although was merely a part of the sociotechnical factors, matched the strengths and advantages of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies and machine-learning techniques well. For example, the technologies will have the computational power to analyze data and support the learning and understanding of actual fuel consumption without adding extra operational workload upon ship personnel. Furthermore, the ethnographic research suggested some strategic direction that was worth further investigation, e.g., how to use historical ship sensor data to predict fuel consumption in a similar condition and provide easily understandable information to support decisions so that it may be possible for the ship operators to understand which factors are influencing the prediction, to what extent and how to adapt operational practice in situ. Additionally, the ethnographic research also elucidated some features that likely play significant roles in machine-learning modelling, such as speed, course, locations, wind, fuel consumption. Some studies used physics-based model simulations to estimate ship performance [
50] and they usually did not integrate weather information into the modelling which will likely influence the prediction capability when used in a real voyage environment.
The purpose of the remainder of the paper is not to shift to the big data analytics to engineer a fully-fledged technological product as such, but to demonstrate a proof of concept that is inspired and initially informed by the ethnographic research, in order to complete this interdisciplinary approach, because the ethnographic research sets the departure point of the research on big data analytics and the follow-up discussion.