Bioremediation Methods for the Recovery of Lead-Contaminated Soils: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Lead Toxic Effects
3. Phytoremediation
- (1)
- phytoextraction, when contaminants are concentrated from soil to plant tissues;
- (2)
- phytodegradation, if plants are able to degrade organic contaminants;
- (3)
- rhizofiltration, when exploiting the capability of plant’s roots to remove pollutants from contaminated water, adsorbing them into the extracellular negatively-charged residues present on the outer coatings of the roots and absorbing them through membrane proteins that act as carrier molecules [35];
- (4)
- phytostabilization, when plant’s roots are able to reduce the bioavailability of contaminants in the soil;
- (5)
- phytovolatilization by obtaining the pollutants’ volatilization.
- (a)
- accumulators that concentrate metals in above-ground tissues;
- (b)
- indicators that regulate uptake and transport of metals so that the internal concentration reflects the external concentration;
- (c)
- excluders for which an accumulation of heavy metals occurs in the roots, but the entry and transport in the aerial parts is limited [32].
3.1. Phytoremediation Capability of Spontaneously Grown Plants
- (a)
- diluted solution of strong acids (HCl and HNO3), acetic acid, and acidified CaCl2;
- (b)
- chelating agent solutions (EDTA and DTPA), mix of low molecular weight organic acids, (LMWOAs), and neutral salt solution (MgCl2);
- (c)
- neutral salt solutions and bidistilled water (BDW).
3.2. Phytoremediation Capability of Plants in Spiked Soils
3.3. In Field Phytoremediation
3.4. Limitation and Disadvantages of Phytoremediation
- soil preparation time, period of planting, and need for irrigation depend on the frequency and intensity of rainfall as well as snowmelt;
- fluctuations in air temperature that influence plants growth performance and are affected in turn by sunlight;
- natural (vegetation) or artificial (neighboring buildings) shading that can modify plants developing capability;
- the growing season length must be taken into account in the forecast of necessary times for recovery since phytoremediation processes are more likely to be active during this period;
- wind affects evaporation and can damage plants with dispersion of volatiles substances and debris;
- all the factors described above are influenced by regional and local weather patterns.
3.5. Phytoremediation By-Products
4. Bioremediation via Fungi and Bacteria
- (a)
- the concentration and bioavailability of the contaminants;
- (b)
- the characteristics of the treated site (e.g., pH, the redox potential, and the oxygen content);
- (c)
- availability of nutrients;
- (d)
- humidity;
- (e)
- temperature (it influences the metabolism of microorganisms) [62].
4.1. Bioremediation by Fungi
- (1)
- the chelation between the fungus and lead by means of active functional groups, such as carboxylic or hydroxyl groups present on the surface of the fungus cell walls,
- (2)
- an enhanced decomposition of organic matter with the consequent augmentation of the humic substances content and capability to immobilize Pb,
- (3)
- an increase in pH with the resulting reduced solubility of the metal [74].
4.2. Bioremediation by Bacteria
4.3. Bioremediation of Organic Lead
5. Bioaugmentation-Assisted Phytoremediation
6. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Extractant | Conditions |
---|---|---|
Bidistilled water | BDW | - |
Neutral salt solutions | Ca(NO3)2 | 0.1 M |
MgCl2 | 1 M | |
NH4NO3 | 1 M | |
NaNO3 | 0.1 M | |
Mg(NO3)2 | 0.5 M | |
CaCl2 (no ac) * | 0.01 M | |
CaCl2 (ac) ** | 0.01 M with HCl (0.1 M) | |
Organic acids | LMWOA (low molecular weight organic acids) | acetic, lactic, citric, malic, and formic acids (ratio 4:2:1:1:1) solution with a total concentration of 10 mM |
HOAc | 0.11 M | |
Chelating agents | EDTA | Na2-EDTA 0.01 M + CH3COONH4 1 M |
DTPA | 0.005 M DTPA + 0.1 M TEA + 0.01 M CaCl2 | |
Diluted acids | HCl | 0.1 M |
HNO3 | 0.5 M |
Study | Plant Species | Results | |
---|---|---|---|
Phytoremediation capability of spontaneously grown plants | Lago-Vila et al. [31] | C. scoparius | Accumulated and concentrated Pb mainly in roots, so acting as a lead phytostabilizer (TF < 1, BF > 1) |
Rotkittikhun et al. [37] | Herbs: S. arvensis Co. sumatrensis Cyperus sp. Shrubs: C. odoratum B. asiatica | Hyperaccumulators: accumulation in shoots 10–500 times more than usual plants (lead 5 mg/kg) shoot accumulation > 1000 mg/kg shoot/root quotient >1, Perennial shrubs are preferable | |
Phytoremediation capability of plants in spiked soils | Alaboudi et al. [43] | H. annuus (sunflower) | BF < 1, so cannot be considered an accumulator but an excluder |
Subhashini et al. [30] | C. roseus | Accumulator (BF > 1 and TF < 1 in roots) so it is useful for phytostabilization | |
Abdul Qados [19] | Trees: C. erectus | Accumulated Pb mainly in shoots | |
E. rostrata, A. saligna | Possible hyperaccumulators (high concentrations in the above-ground tissues, no reduction of biomass) | ||
In-the-field phytoremediation | Gurajala et al. [44] | B. juncea L. (Indian mustard), 80 types | Genotypes IM-24 and IM-32 had TF > 1 and accumulated more Pb than other varieties |
Study | Species | Mechanism | |
---|---|---|---|
Bioremediation by fungi | Rhee et al. [69] | P. javanicus M. anisopliae | Precipitation of lead as chloropyromorphite |
Povedano-Priego et al. [68] | A. niger P. chrysogenum T. viride | Precipitation of lead phosphate and biosorption | |
Arwidsson et al. [72] | A. niger P. bilaiae P. sp | Chelation with LMWOAs | |
Iram et al. [73] | A. niger | Biosorption | |
Huang et al. [74] | P. chrysosporium | Chelation with active functional groups Binding with humic substances, pH increase, and solubility reduction | |
Bioremediation by bacteria | Li et al. [77] | R. sphaeroides | Immobilization as inert forms |
Teng et al. [78] | L. adecarboxylata | Binding with EPS | |
Achal et al. [79] | K. flava | Chelation by calcite |
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Rigoletto, M.; Calza, P.; Gaggero, E.; Malandrino, M.; Fabbri, D. Bioremediation Methods for the Recovery of Lead-Contaminated Soils: A Review. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 3528. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10103528
Rigoletto M, Calza P, Gaggero E, Malandrino M, Fabbri D. Bioremediation Methods for the Recovery of Lead-Contaminated Soils: A Review. Applied Sciences. 2020; 10(10):3528. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10103528
Chicago/Turabian StyleRigoletto, Monica, Paola Calza, Elisa Gaggero, Mery Malandrino, and Debora Fabbri. 2020. "Bioremediation Methods for the Recovery of Lead-Contaminated Soils: A Review" Applied Sciences 10, no. 10: 3528. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10103528