Burnout and Working Conditions in the Spanish Hotel Sector: A Job Demands–Resources Analysis in the Context of Wage Adjustments

Abstract

The Spanish tourism sector is experiencing an unprecedented boom. However, this macroeconomic success coexists with a growing crisis of burnout and job insecurity. While the macroeconomic effects of minimum wage policies are widely debated, the micro-level psychosocial reality of employees operating within these cost-pressured environments remains largely unexplored. This research uses the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) framework to descriptively explore the current state of employee well-being in the Spanish hotel sector, operating within the macroeconomic context of recent minimum wage increases. Specifically, the study evaluates how environments characterized by high cost-containment pressures are associated with exacerbated labour demands and depleted resources, a pattern consistent with burnout, thus analysing the implications for social sustainability. Our data come from a survey of 384 hotel employees in Spain and were analysed using the Labour Demands–Resources (JD-R) framework and bootstrap methods. The results reveal that employees report very low agreement that their workloads are reasonable and manageable (mean = 1.8/5) and perceive limited development opportunities (mean = 1.9/5), despite acknowledging the importance of well-being for sustainability (mean = 4.8/5). Work intensification is particularly acute in regions with high seasonality and among cleaning staff. Furthermore, sustainability awareness moderates the negative impact of workload on employee engagement. The study concludes that within high-pressure hospitality environments, macroeconomic wage improvements can be offset by a decline in job quality, threatening the long-term social sustainability of the sector. We advocate for more nuanced policies and a shift in human resource management strategy toward genuine investment in human capital.

1. Introduction

The Spanish tourism sector is experiencing an unprecedented boom. In 2024, international tourism spending exceeded €207 billion, breaking all previous records, and the number of hotel establishments and available rooms has fully recovered to pre-pandemic levels (EXCELTUR, 2025; INE, 2026). Simultaneously, in the interest of social justice, the Spanish government has drastically increased the Minimum Interprofessional Wage, raising it cumulatively by more than 50% since 2018 (MTES, 2025). At first glance, this combination of macroeconomic success and progressive wage policy appears to be a virtuous cycle that benefits both the economy and low-wage workers.

However, beneath these aggregate figures, a more worrying picture emerges in the hotel sector. A growing body of literature points to a crisis in workplace well-being, characterized by high levels of job stress, emotional exhaustion, and job insecurity, especially among housekeeping and customer service staff (Cañada, 2019; García-Buades et al., 2025). This phenomenon, often intensified by the sector’s inherent seasonality, not only compromises employees’ mental health but also threatens long-term service quality and the social sustainability of the hotels themselves (Giousmpasoglou, 2024).

This article explicitly links these two paradoxical trends by proposing a three-step theoretical mechanism rooted in firm behaviour and the JD-R model: First, while minimum wage increases aim to improve living standards, they impose an exogenous labour cost shock on hospitality firms. Second, guided by cost-containment and profit-maximization theories in highly competitive markets, companies frequently implement strategic adjustments beyond simple layoffs to absorb these costs, such as work intensification and reduced human capital investment (Agarwal et al., 2023). We argue that these firm-level adjustments constitute a primary risk factor associated with employee burnout. Ultimately, the theoretical benefits of macroeconomic wage improvements can be undermined by these firm-level adjustments, imposing hidden costs on job quality and threatening the long-term social sustainability of the hotel industry. To conceptualize these hidden costs, this study adopts the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). The JD-R framework provides a robust theoretical lens to evaluate how firms’ strategic adjustments impact the psychosocial well-being and job quality of employees, offering a novel conceptual bridge between macroeconomic labour policy and microeconomic outcomes. A detailed theoretical elaboration of this model and its application to the hospitality sector is presented in the literature review.

Despite extensive research on the hospitality industry, a significant gap remains regarding the micro-level, psychosocial consequences for employees operating in high-pressure, cost-containment environments. Prior studies have predominantly focused on macroeconomic outcomes or firm profitability, paying limited attention to how the broader economic context—such as the operational pressures introduced by recent minimum wage increases—shapes employee well-being. Specifically, there is a need to descriptively explore how these structural constraints are associated with job quality, work intensification, and burnout in labour-intensive sectors.

This research offers a novel conceptual bridge between macroeconomic labour policy and the microeconomic outcomes for employees, shifting the debate beyond traditional concerns about employment levels to examine the hidden costs borne by workers in terms of job quality and psychosocial well-being.

To test this, we conducted a cross-sectional study of 384 hotel employees in Spain’s main tourist regions. Using bootstrapping techniques, we analysed their perceptions of workload, professional development, and organizational commitment. The article is structured as follows: Section 2 provides the literature review on business adjustment mechanisms and develops the research hypotheses based on the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model. Section 3 details the methodology. Section 4 presents the results of the employee survey. Section 5 analyses these findings within the context of the Spanish macroeconomic paradox, and Section 6 concludes with the theoretical and policy implications for achieving truly sustainable human resource management in the Spanish hotel sector.

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

The economic literature on minimum wages has long been polarized between the neoclassical prediction of job losses and the monopsony theory’s emphasis on firms’ market power (Neumark & Wascher, 2007; Card & Krueger, 1994). However, this binary approach to employment levels overlooks the more subtle adjustments firms make to absorb labour cost shocks, adjustments that fundamentally transform the quality of work for those who remain employed. Recent research in the hospitality sector confirms that minimum wage increases have complex and nonlinear effects on labour productivity, with spatial repercussions and heterogeneous impacts across regions (Philander & Roe, 2013; Zhang & Pan, 2024). Faced with an exogenous minimum wage increase, hotel firms operating in a labour-intensive sector where payroll accounts for up to 45% of operating costs can choose from a range of strategic responses (Mun & Woo, 2021; Agarwal et al., 2023). These responses, summarized in

Table 1. Business adjustment channels in the hotel sector following macroeconomic wage shifts.

Adjustment Channel	Mechanism Description	Potential Negative Impact on Employees	Potential Negative Impact on the Sector	Supporting Evidence
Job reduction	Layoffs or hiring freezes to reduce the wage bill	Unemployment, labour insecurity	Loss of productive capacity, deterioration of quality	(O’Neill & McGinley, 2016)
Translation to prices	Increased room rates and service prices to offset costs	It can reduce demand and, therefore, the need for long-term staff	Loss of competitiveness, sectorial inflation	(Agarwal et al., 2023)
Margin compression	Cost absorption through lower profits	Less investment in training and improvements to the work environment	Reduced investment, lower growth, risk of closure for SMEs	(O’Neill & McGinley, 2016)
Intensification of work	Increased workload and responsibilities for the remaining staff	Increased stress, pressure, burnout, role conflicts	Deterioration of service quality, increased staff turnover	(Leonard, 2000)
Contractual changes	Replacement of permanent contracts with temporary or part-time contracts or promotion of informality	Job insecurity, loss of rights and benefits	Increase in the underground economy, unfair competition	(Pabon & Del Carpio, 2017)
Automation	Investment in technology (self-check-in reception, cleaning robots) to replace human tasks	Displacement of low-skilled jobs	High initial investment costs, possible dehumanization of the service	(Leonard, 2000)

Source: Own elaboration.

, have direct, but often overlooked, consequences for employees.

According to prior studies, an analysis of these effects reveals that a wage increase can be accompanied by hidden costs that fall directly on workers. For instance, the literature shows that even when companies avoid direct layoffs, they often resort to reducing working hours as a mechanism to control payroll. A study (Jardim et al., 2017) on the retail sector found a paradoxical result: for every one dollar increase in the minimum wage, the average number of hours worked per week by each employee decreased by 20.8%. As a result, companies began to resort to reduced hours and contract changes that increased job insecurity (Allegretto & Reich, 2016; Pabon & Del Carpio, 2017). This reduction in working hours has implications that go beyond decreased income, as workers can lose a crucial social safety net, increasing their economic vulnerability (Leonard, 2000). Furthermore, companies may choose to modify their workforce structure, replacing full-time contracts with part-time or temporary contracts, fostering precarious employment (Pabon & Del Carpio, 2017).

To understand the consequences of these adjustments, we turn to the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model, a robust framework for explaining well-being and burnout (Demerouti et al., 2001; Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). The model classifies working conditions into two broad categories: job demands, which refer to aspects of work that require sustained physical or psychological effort (workload, time pressure); and job resources, which help achieve goals, reduce demands, or stimulate personal growth (autonomy, social support, development opportunities). Burnout occurs when high demands are combined with a scarcity of resources, triggering a process of declining health.

The hotel industry offers a classic example of this imbalance. Research has consistently documented that frontline staff face high physical and emotional demands, coupled with limited autonomy, insufficient support, and scarce training opportunities (Cañada, 2019; García-Buades et al., 2025). Recent studies confirm that hospitality workers experience high levels of burnout due to unsustainable working conditions. Two-thirds of workers report fatigue, and 43% experience feelings of hopelessness associated with customer interactions (Fletcher & Rasmussen, 2020). A comprehensive analysis of working conditions in the global hospitality industry identifies widespread problems, including unequal pay structures, widespread underemployment, underutilization of skills, increased work pressure, wage instability, and limited social mobility, all of which have detrimental effects on employee well-being and mental health (Giousmpasoglou, 2024). These adverse conditions have significant societal ramifications, creating talent retention challenges and recruitment difficulties across the sector.

This structural imbalance makes hotel workers inherently vulnerable to psychosocial risks. Research in the Indonesian hotel context demonstrates that job demands significantly influence employee performance through the mediating effect of burnout and psychological well-being, where work–life balance and management support act as critical buffering factors (Ali et al., 2025). Furthermore, studies reveal that hotel employees often respond to burnout and well-being with a “silent resignation” (disengaging from work without leaving), rather than leaving the sector altogether, resulting in hidden costs to organizational performance (Prentice et al., 2024).

This study formalizes a theoretical mechanism linking macroeconomic policy to microeconomic outcomes by integrating the economic logic of firm behaviour with the JD-R framework. We argue that cost-containment strategies implemented by firms to protect profit margins in response to exogenous wage shocks directly exacerbate this pre-existing imbalance between job demands and labour resources. When hotels respond by reducing staff or intensifying workloads (the “job reduction” and “work intensification” channels), they directly increase the job demands on the remaining employees. Housekeeping staff must clean more rooms per shift; a receptionist must attend to more guests with less support. Simultaneously, when hotels respond by cutting non-wage costs (reducing investment in training, limiting advancement opportunities, or offering more precarious contracts), they actively reduce the labour resources available to workers. According to the JD-R model, this combination of increased demands and decreased resources is consistently associated with burnout, poor health, and reduced organizational commitment.

Hypothesis H1 posits that hotel employees perceive high levels of work intensification (unreasonable workload), with significant vulnerabilities based on occupational position and regional seasonality. This hypothesis is based on evidence that work intensification represents a fundamental adjustment mechanism for companies facing labour cost shocks (Leonard, 2000). Recent workforce surveys confirm that unsustainable working hours and excessive workloads are among the top drivers of employee departures from the hospitality sector, even among those who enjoy the work itself (Fletcher & Rasmussen, 2020). Work intensification manifests as a faster work pace, shorter break times, and a greater allocation of tasks per employee; all of which raise job demands without a corresponding increase in resources.

Hypothesis H2 proposes that hotel employees perceive restricted professional development opportunities, and this perception is significantly influenced by the hotel category. This reflects the strategic reallocation of resources away from investment in human capital when companies face cost pressures. Comparative data from the tourism and hospitality sectors reveal that tourism workers report significantly greater access to training, better career opportunities, and more favourable development pathways compared to hospitality workers (Fletcher & Rasmussen, 2020). This disparity suggests that hospitality companies may be more likely to sacrifice non-wage investments when labour costs increase. The documented underutilization of skills and limited social mobility in the sector (Giousmpasoglou, 2024) further support this hypothesis.

H3 predicts that the perception of employee well-being as a pillar of sustainability moderates the relationship between job demands and organizational commitment. Recent research has established that organizational support mechanisms can mitigate the negative effects of job stress. Several studies demonstrate that sustainable organizational support significantly affects burnout in the hospitality sector through the mediating role of psychological capital (Moustafa et al., 2024). Transformational leadership and meaningful CSR initiatives have been shown to alleviate burnout and increase intrinsic motivation among hotel employees, directly contributing to SDG 3 (good health and well-being) and SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) (Ahmad et al., 2026). The moderating role of sustainability awareness aligns with evidence that employees who perceive their organization as genuinely committed to well-being demonstrate greater resilience and engagement, even under demanding working conditions. Conversely, when sustainability initiatives are perceived as additional tasks rather than meaningful contributions, employee engagement declines rapidly (Deloitte, 2023, cited in Vatan, 2026).

3. Methodology

To empirically evaluate the theoretical framework proposed in the previous section—specifically, the current state of job quality, work intensification, and resource depletion within the hotel sector—this study adopts a research design that contextualizes primary survey data with secondary macroeconomic analyses. Rather than directly testing the causal impact of minimum wage increases, the secondary macroeconomic data is used strictly as a contextual variable to frame the high cost-containment environment in which the sector operates, while the primary survey data descriptively assesses employee well-being through the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model. The Spanish hotel sector constitutes an ideal empirical laboratory, given its labour intensity, its high proportion of minimum wage workers, and its exposure to the substantial minimum wage increases implemented between 2015 and 2025 (see Appendix A for detailed annual trends).

Primary data were collected through a structured survey of hotel employees throughout Spain, administered between August and December 2025. Participants were recruited through direct contact with hotels participating in other related research projects. A total of 800 individuals were invited, resulting in 384 valid and complete responses, yielding an estimated response rate of 48.0%. The target population (N = 444,924) corresponds to the number of people employed in hotel establishments according to the Randstad (2024). To ensure representativeness, the sampling formula for finite populations was applied with a 95% confidence level (z = 1.96) and a 5% margin of error (d = 0.05), assuming maximum indeterminacy (p = q = 0.5). The calculation yielded a minimum required sample size of 384 valid responses.

To capture the territorial diversity of the sector, a proportional stratified sampling was used based on the distribution of hotel employment in the main tourist regions of Spain (Randstad, 2024), resulting in the following allocation: Andalusia (16.9%, n = 65), Catalonia (17.0%, n = 65), Community of Madrid (6.4%, n = 25), Valencian Community (6.9%, n = 26), Balearic Islands (14.2%, n = 55), Canary Islands (22.7%, n = 87) and other regions (15.9%, n = 61).

The questionnaire was structured into three thematic blocks, utilizing single-item measures to operationalize the key constructs of the JD-R model and the adjustment channels. All items were measured using five-point Likert scales. While this ad-hoc, single-item approach was specifically chosen to minimize survey fatigue and maximize response rates among highly stressed frontline staff, we acknowledge that it precludes the use of traditional psychometric validation (such as Cronbach’s alpha or EFA/CFA) and limits the robust measurement of latent constructs.

While the questionnaire included various items exploring the broader work environment, to strictly test our hypotheses and avoid analytical overload, we focus exclusively on the key variables aligned with the JD-R model and our regression models. In the job demands block, item B3 (“The workload is reasonable and manageable”) serves as our direct indicator of work intensification. In the labour resources block, we focus on training opportunities (D1) and advancement possibilities (D2), which capture the non-wage investments often sacrificed by companies. Finally, the sustainability block addresses commitment to the hotel’s mission (S4) and the importance of employee well-being for long-term sustainability (S5), specifically designed to assess the potential moderating role proposed in hypothesis H3.

To contextualize employee perceptions within broader sectoral trends, secondary macroeconomic data were extracted from precise national datasets. Specifically, data on hotel employment, establishments, and available rooms were sourced from the Hotel Occupancy Survey (Encuesta de Ocupación Hotelera) by the National Institute of Statistics (INE, 2026). The aggregate employment effects of the minimum wage increase were derived from the Technical Document 9/25 and the 2020 microeconomic evaluation reports by the Independent Authority for Fiscal Responsibility (AIReF, 2020, 2025). Finally, industry performance and tourist demand evolution were contextualized using the Tourism Outlook Report (Num 91) by EXCELTUR (2025). Furthermore, sampling population parameters were aligned with the Randstad (2024).

Given the cross-sectional nature of the survey and the possibility of non-normal distributions in the perceptual data, all analyses underwent bootstrap analysis with 1000 resamples. This non-parametric technique provides robust standard errors and confidence intervals, reducing bias in parameter estimates and increasing confidence in inferential statistics, particularly for interaction effects (H3). Furthermore, to ensure the validity of our findings, a series of robustness checks were conducted. These included examining 95% bootstrap confidence intervals for key coefficients, testing sensitivity to alternative specifications (such as excluding managerial staff), and using alternative operationalizations (e.g., creating a composite index for professional development resources). Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, frequencies) were calculated to characterize employee perceptions. To formally test for occupational and regional differences, analyses of variance (ANOVAs) with Bonferroni corrections for multiple comparisons were conducted. This was followed by bivariate correlation analysis and Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) linear regression models to test the hypotheses. OLS was selected as the appropriate estimation technique given the continuous treatment of our scaled dependent variables and its established robustness in interpreting interaction and moderation effects (H3). To ensure the reliability of the empirical results and validate model specification, comprehensive diagnostic tests were conducted prior to estimation, including checks for multicollinearity and heteroscedasticity. All models incorporated relevant control variables (age, sex, seniority, job title, hotel category, and autonomous community).

4. Results

The final sample consisted of 384 valid responses, distributed according to the predefined territorial stratification. To check for sample bias, demographic distributions were compared against national sectoral data. As shown in

Table 2. Primary data analysed.

Characteristic	Category	n	%	Characteristic	Category	n	%
Gender	Male	122	31.8	Job Position	Housekeeping Staff	132	34.4
	Female	262	68.2		Food & Beverage Staff	111	28.9
Age Group	Under 25 years	40	10.4		Reception/Concierge	62	16.1
	25–34 years	78	20.3		Kitchen Staff	44	11.5
	35–44 years	108	28.1		Management/Supervision	16	4.2
	45–54 years	121	31.5		Other	19	4.9
	55 years and over	37	9.7	Hotel Category	1–2 stars	20	5.2
Educational Level	Compulsory Education	88	22.9		3 stars	148	38.5
	Vocational Training/Baccalaureate	225	58.6		4 stars	164	42.7
	University Degree	62	16.1		5 stars/Luxury	52	13.5
	Postgraduate Studies	9	2.4	Annual Gross Salary	<€15,000	35	9.1
Region	Andalusia	65	16.9		€15,000–€20,000	174	45.3
	Catalonia	65	16.9		€20,001–€25,000	140	36.5
	Community of Madrid	25	6.5		€25,001–€30,000	25	6.5
	Valencian Community	26	6.8		>€30,000	10	2.6
	Balearic Islands	55	14.3	Job Tenure	Less than 1 year	44	11.5
	Canary Islands	87	22.7		1–3 years	79	20.6
	Other regions	61	15.9		4–7 years	119	31.0
					8–15 years	93	24.2
					More than 15 years	49	12.8

Source: Own elaboration.

, the sample closely reflects the feminized nature of the Spanish hotel sector, with 68.2% of respondents being women. Similarly, the occupational breakdown (with cleaning staff at 34.4% and food & beverage at 28.9%) accurately mirrors the frontline-heavy structure of the industry. Because these unweighted sample distributions for gender and job role closely matched known population parameters, we determined that formal post-stratification weighting beyond the initial regional stratification was unnecessary to ensure representativeness. By age, the largest group was 45–54 years old (31.5%), followed by 35–44 years old (28.1%). Regarding educational level, workers with Vocational Training or a Baccalaureate predominated (58.6%). As for length of service, 31.0% had been with their current hotel for between 4 and 7 years, while 11.5% had less than one year of service. The most represented job categories were cleaning staff (34.4%), food and beverage staff (28.9%), and reception staff (16.1%). Most respondents worked in 4-star (42.7%) or 3-star (38.5%) establishments and the most frequent salary range was €15,000 to €20,000 gross per year (45.3%).

Table 3. Results by respondents.

Item Code	Item Statement	Mean *	SD *
Job Demands & Work Intensification
B3	The workload is reasonable and manageable	1.8	1.2
Professional Development Resources
D1	My hotel offers regular training and development opportunities	2.1	1.0
D2	There are clear opportunities for advancement and career development	1.9	1.1
Organizational Commitment & Sustainability
S4	I feel a greater commitment to the hotel’s mission because it invests in my professional future	4.1	0.9
S5	Employee care is a fundamental pillar of long-term sustainability in the sector	4.8	0.4

Source: Own elaboration. * Note: All items are measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree, 5 = Strongly agree). Items in bold highlight the lowest (B3, D2) and highest (S5) average scores.

presents the descriptive analysis of the core variables, revealing a striking pattern consistent with the JD-R model’s predictions of a demands–resources imbalance. Notably, the statement ‘The workload is reasonable and manageable’ (B3) received an extremely low mean score (M = 1.8, SD = 1.2), indicating widespread disagreement and pointing to work intensification as a pervasive reality. In contrast, the sustainability section revealed a strong awareness of the importance of employee well-being. The statement ‘Caring for employees is a fundamental pillar of long-term sustainability’ (S5) received the highest average score (M = 4.8, SD = 0.4), while organizational commitment linked to professional investment (S4) also showed positive levels (M = 4.1, SD = 0.9).

The professional development block received the lowest overall scores. Training opportunities (D1 = 2.1) and the chances of advancement (D2 = 1.9) were poorly evaluated, suggesting that companies may be reducing investment in human capital, a key resource for employment, in response to cost pressures.

In stark contrast, the sustainability section revealed a strong awareness of the importance of employee well-being. The statement “Caring for employees is a fundamental pillar of long-term sustainability” (S5) received the highest mean score in the survey (M = 4.8; SD = 0.4). This marked discrepancy between what employees value (S5) and what they experience (B3, D2) encapsulates the central paradox of this study.

The perception of workload varied significantly between regions (F-test significant at p < 0.01). Post-hoc analyses with Bonferroni correction confirmed that in regions with high tourist seasonality (Balearic and Canary Islands), scores on the reasonable workload item (B3) were significantly lower (M = 1.6, SD = 1.1 in both archipelagos) compared to Madrid (M = 2.0, SD = 1.0) and the Valencian Community (M = 1.9, SD = 1.1). This suggests that the concentration of demand during peak hours intensifies the pressure on workers, with work intensification strategies being more pronounced where seasonal fluctuations are more extreme.

The formal ANOVA by job position revealed marked disparities (p < 0.001). Bonferroni-corrected comparisons showed that cleaning staff reported the lowest levels of agreement that their workload is reasonable (B3, M = 1.4, SD = 1.0) than other groups, followed by food service staff (B3, M = 1.7, SD = 1.1). These frontline positions, which involve the most physically demanding tasks and direct customer contact, also registered the lowest scores across the core professional development indicators (D1 and D2). Conversely, those occupying managerial positions reported significantly more favourable perceptions across all areas, with averages above 4.0 for well-being and development items, reflecting a radically different work reality within the same sector.

Hypothesis H1 posited that hotel employees perceive high levels of work intensification (unreasonable workload), with significant vulnerabilities based on occupational position and regional seasonality. Due to the cross-sectional nature of our data, we cannot directly test this causal link, nor can we use job tenure as a reliable stand-in for exposure to wage policy, as this indicator is methodologically problematic and could skew the results. Instead, we evaluate the current prevalence of work intensification descriptively. While the results showed a weak but statistically significant negative correlation between job tenure and B3 (r = −0.18; p < 0.01)—indicating that more-tenured workers perceive their workload as significantly less manageable—we do not treat this as proof of H1 due to inherent selection biases. Instead, work intensification is more robustly evidenced by the overall low B3 scores (M = 1.8) across the sample and the significant occupational and geographical disparities.

While Hypotheses 1 and 2 are evaluated descriptively due to the absence of a direct minimum wage variable in our cross-sectional survey,

Table 4. Descriptive statistics and correlation matrix.

Variable	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Age (ref: <25 yo)	0.28	0.45	1
Gender (Female = 1)	0.68		−0.77	1
Job Tenure (ref: <1 y)	0.31	0.46	−0.52 **	0.60 **	1
Hotel Category (ref: 4 *)	0.56	0.50	0.37	0.45 **	0.39 **	1
Workload (B3)	1.80	1.20	−0.30 **	−0.77 **	−0.52 **	0.45	1
Training (D1)	2.10	1.00	−0.23 **	−0.76 **	−0.60 **	0.54	0.88 **	1
Advancement (D2)	1.90	1.10	−0.40 **	−0.79 **	−0.42 **	0.44 **	0.93 **	0.87 **	1
Commitment (S4)	4.10	0.90	−0.22 **	−0.67 **	−0.76 **	0.53 **	0.85 **	0.91 **	0.84 **
Sustainability (S5)	4.80	0.40	0.34 *	−0.33 **	−0.32 **	0.15	0.52 **	0.60 **	0.42 **

Note: N = 384. Gender is coded as 1 = Female, 0 = Male. Significant correlations are flagged at: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

presents the bivariate correlation matrix, means, and standard deviations for all core study variables. This analysis was conducted to assess preliminary associations and rule out multicollinearity prior to estimating the regression models.

Hypothesis H2 proposed that hotel employees perceive restricted professional development opportunities, and this perception is significantly influenced by the hotel category. The correlation between seniority and perceived development was not significant (r = 0.03; p > 0.05 for D1; r = 0.02; p > 0.05 for D2). However, a moderate positive correlation was observed between hotel category and development opportunities (r = 0.32; p < 0.001), indicating that employees in higher-category hotels (4 and 5 stars) perceive significantly more opportunities for training and advancement than those in lower-category establishments. This suggests that the provision of professional development within high-pressure, cost-containment environments is strongly influenced by business strategy and market positioning, indicating that luxury hotels have a greater capacity to sustain investment in human capital despite broader macroeconomic challenges.

Hypothesis H3 predicted that the perception of employee well-being as a pillar of sustainability (S5) moderates the relationship between job demands (B3) and organizational commitment (S4). To test this, a regression analysis was performed with S4 as the dependent variable, entering B3, S5, and their interaction as predictors, controlling for age, sex, seniority, and hotel category. The model specifications and outcomes are detailed in

Table 5. Regression Model (Hypothesis 3).

Variable	Model 3 (H3)
	DV: Commitment (S4)
Control Variables	β (SE)
Age	0.04 (0.03)
Gender (Female = 1)	−0.03 (0.04)
Job Tenure	0.05 (0.03)
Hotel Category	0.07 (0.04)
Independent Variables
Workload (B3)	0.25 (0.05) *
Sustainability Pillar (S5)	0.42 (0.06) *
B3 × S5 Interaction	0.15 (0.04) *
Model Fit
R2	0.38
Adjusted R2	0.35
F-statistic	22.63 ***

Note: DV = Dependent Variable. All coefficients are standardized betas (β). Standard errors (SE) of the bootstrap method are presented in parentheses. Bootstrapped 95% Confidence Intervals (1000 resamples) for all significant predictors were confirmed to not include zero. Gender is coded using a dummy variable (1 = Female, 0 = Male). Hotel category ranges from 1 (1–2 stars) to 4 (5 stars/luxury). Significance levels: * p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001.

.

The results revealed a significant main effect of B3 (β = 0.25; p < 0.001) and a significant main effect of S5 (β = 0.42; p < 0.001). Crucially, the B3 × S5 interaction term was also significant (β = 0.15; p < 0.01). Interaction decomposition showed that, for workers with low S5 scores, workload had a pronounced negative effect on engagement; however, for those with high S5 scores, this negative effect was substantially attenuated. Thus, hypothesis H3 receives preliminary, exploratory support: sustainability awareness may act as a psychological buffer, enabling workers to maintain engagement even under conditions of high perceived workload. However, these results must be interpreted with caution. The moderating variable (S5) was measured using a single item and exhibits a strong ceiling effect (M = 4.8, SD = 0.4), which limits the statistical power and reliability of the moderation inference.

Robustness and diagnostic tests were performed to confirm the stability and validity of our models. First, multicollinearity was assessed using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF); all VIF values were well below the conservative threshold of 3.0 (maximum VIF = 1.7), confirming that multicollinearity is not an issue. Second, to address potential concerns regarding heteroscedasticity and non-normal residuals common in perception surveys, we relied on our use of bootstrapping with 1000 resamples. This technique directly accounts for heteroscedasticity by providing robust standard errors, ensuring consistent inference without relying on strict parametric assumptions. Furthermore, the 95% bootstrap confidence intervals for all key predictors in the regression model were examined and none crossed zero, confirming their statistical significance. Third, given that managerial staff (n = 16) reported significantly more favourable perceptions across all areas, we re-estimated the models excluding this group to ensure they were not skewing the data; the direction and significance of the main coefficients remained completely unchanged. Finally, we tested an alternative operationalization for Hypothesis 2 by creating a composite ‘development resources’ index (averaging items D1 to D5). The regression using this composite index yielded consistent results with the single-item (D2) model, reaffirming the robustness of our conclusions regarding the depletion of labour resources.

5. Discussion: Evidence from the Spanish Hotel Case

There is no doubt that the relationship between salary and job well-being is complex. On the one hand, there is evidence that a higher salary can have direct positive effects on employees, as studies such as that by Ahmat et al. (2019) in the Malaysian hotel sector found, identifying that the perception of an adequate minimum wage policy positively influenced satisfaction with compensation, job motivation, and perceived quality of life. Therefore, a fair salary can act as both an intrinsic and extrinsic motivator (Ferdian et al., 2021). However, psychological well-being at work depends not only on remuneration but also on factors such as positive relationships with colleagues and a manageable work environment (Jung et al., 2023). Our empirical results confirm a widespread imbalance between job demands and resources.

This study aimed to investigate the current state of employee well-being and professional development in the context of recent minimum wage increases. While our empirical data descriptively captures the deterioration of job quality rather than empirically proving a direct causal link to wage policies, we utilize the JD-R framework as a theoretical bridge to explore the unintended effects of wage policy on social sustainability. The findings reveal three interconnected patterns that, together, illustrate the hidden costs of labour cost adjustments in the hotel sector.

First, while external literature notes that higher wages can intrinsically motivate employees and improve their baseline quality of life (Ahmat et al., 2019), our results confirm that this monetary benefit is offset by a widespread imbalance between job demands and resources: employees report low agreement with having a reasonable and manageable workload (B3 = 1.8/5) and limited opportunities for training and advancement (D1 = 2.1/5; D2 = 1.9/5), despite demonstrating a strong awareness that employee well-being is crucial for long-term sustainability (S5 = 4.8/5). Second, the intensification of work is not evenly distributed but is concentrated among the most vulnerable groups (cleaning staff and workers in highly seasonal regions) suggesting that the burden of adjustment falls disproportionately on those with less bargaining power. Third, sustainability awareness moderates the relationship between workload and commitment, revealing both a psychological buffer and a potential mechanism of exploitation. We analysed each hypothesis separately, connecting our findings to the JD-R framework and the literature on minimum wage adjustments.

Our findings provide descriptive support for this phenomenon. Rather than restating the statistical correlations detailed in the Results section, our analysis highlights that the most compelling evidence of work intensification comes from geographical and occupational variations: in regions with extreme seasonality (the Balearic and Canary Islands), workload manageability scores drop significantly below the national average. This pattern aligns with the work intensification channel identified in the literature (Leonard, 2000) and confirms that firms under competitive pressure respond to fluctuations in labour costs by extracting greater output from their remaining staff rather than hiring additional workers.

Applying the JD-R framework, this intensification represents a pure increase in job demands without a proportional increase in resources. Recent research confirms that unsustainable working hours and excessive workloads are among the main factors driving employees to leave the hospitality sector, even among those who enjoy the work itself (Fletcher & Rasmussen, 2020). The finding that housekeepers—the largest and most vulnerable occupational group—report the lowest levels of agreement regarding workload manageability (B3 = 1.4/5) is consistent with qualitative evidence documenting the structural precarity of this group (Cañada, 2019; García-Buades et al., 2025). It also suggests that minimum wage policies, by intensifying cost pressures on employers, may inadvertently exacerbate the very working conditions that make hospitality employment unattractive.

Hypothesis H2 posited that hotel employees perceive restricted professional development opportunities, and this perception is significantly influenced by the hotel category. Because our empirical design lacks a direct measure of minimum wage exposure, we could not statistically test this relationship via regression, and therefore H2 is not empirically supported. Instead, our descriptive results indicated that perceived development opportunities are strongly associated with hotel category. Employees of luxury hotels (4–5 stars) perceived significantly more opportunities for training and advancement than those in mid-range and low-end establishments. This finding suggests that rather than a universal effect driven by minimum wage adjustments, investment in human capital is primarily determined by market positioning and profit margins.

From the perspective of labour demand, this represents a depletion of labour resources precisely when demands are increasing. The underutilization of skills and restricted social mobility documented in the sector (Giousmpasoglou, 2024) are not inevitable characteristics of hospitality work but are determined by companies’ strategic decisions. When hotels respond to wage increases by cutting non-wage costs (e.g., reducing training budgets, limiting opportunities for advancement, or offering more precarious contracts), this strategic choice is closely associated with an erosion of the resources that enable employees to meet demands and find meaning in their work. The contrast between the high value placed on employee care for sustainability (S5 = 4.8/5) and the low investment in development (D1 = 2.1/5; D2 = 1.9/5) reveals a gap between workers’ expectations and organizational reality that has implications for retention and service quality. Comparative evidence supports this interpretation: tourism workers report significantly greater access to training and better career opportunities than hospitality workers, suggesting that sectoral differences in business models influence investment in human capital.

Hypothesis H3 predicted that the perception of employee well-being as a pillar of sustainability (S5) moderates the relationship between job demands (B3) and organizational commitment (S4). The significant interaction effect (β = 0.15; p < 0.01) offers exploratory support for this prediction. While it suggests that for employees with low sustainability awareness, workload has a marked negative effect on commitment, and for those with high awareness, this negative effect is substantially attenuated, we acknowledge the methodological limitations of this finding. Relying on a single-item measure with a pronounced ceiling effect limits the robustness of this moderation.

This moderating effect reveals an important nuance in the JD-R model. Consistent with research on personal resources and social identity theory, employees who internalize organizational values—in this case, the belief that well-being is fundamental to sustainability—appear to develop psychological resilience that buffers the impact of high demands. Recent studies confirm that sustainable organizational support affects burnout through the mediating role of psychological capital (Moustafa et al., 2024), and that transformational leadership and meaningful CSR initiatives can alleviate burnout while boosting intrinsic motivation (Ahmad et al., 2026). Our findings expand upon the existing literature by demonstrating that employee awareness of sustainability as a value even in the absence of corresponding organizational investment can act as a protective resource.

However, this finding also raises a troubling question: to what extent can companies exploit this resilience, shifting the cost of adapting to salary policies onto the most engaged workers? If sustainability-conscious employees maintain their commitment despite unsustainable workloads, they may be perpetuating working conditions that undermine their well-being. This interpretation aligns with research on “silent resignation” in the hospitality sector, which shows that employees often respond to poor well-being by disengaging without leaving their jobs; a hidden cost that doesn’t appear in turnover statistics but erodes organizational performance (Prentice et al., 2024). The moderating effect of sustainability awareness can therefore be a double-edged sword: a genuine psychological resource for workers, but also a potential mechanism by which companies externalize adjustment costs to those more aligned with organizational values.

Beyond specific hypotheses, our findings reveal a striking macrosocial paradox: the Spanish hotel sector is breaking revenue records, yet employees report unsustainable workloads and stagnant professional development. This disconnects between macroeconomic success and microsocial well-being demands explicit analysis.

The resilience of tourism demand in the post-pandemic period has allowed hotels to pass on increased costs (including wages, energy, and supplies) to final prices (Asensio, 2015). This ability to pass on costs, driven by demand willing to pay higher prices, has protected short-term profitability. However, our data suggest that this safety margin has not translated into improved working conditions. Instead, the sector appears to be externalizing the costs of wage adjustments onto the health and engagement of workers. This interpretation aligns with recent evidence indicating that minimum wage increases in the hotel industry are frequently associated with shorter working hours, greater job insecurity, and a more intense work pace, even when employment levels remain stable (Pabon & Del Carpio, 2017).

From a sustainability perspective, this model is inherently unstable. The JD-R framework predicts that a sustained imbalance between high demands and low resources leads to burnout, deteriorating health, and ultimately, leaving the labour market (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). The fact that workers in highly seasonal regions report the most unsustainable workloads suggests that the pressure is most intense where productivity demands are highest. If this pressure persists, current macroeconomic stability may mask a progressive decline in occupational health that will eventually affect productivity, service quality, and the sector’s competitive advantage. The contrast between what employees value (S5 = 4.8/5) and what they experience (B3 = 1.8/5; D2 = 1.9/5) encapsulates this unsustainability: a workforce that understands the importance of well-being for long-term success is being asked to bear the costs of short-term adjustment.

6. Conclusions

This article concludes that frontline employees in the Spanish hotel sector face significant psychosocial challenges—specifically regarding a deterioration in job quality, severe work intensification, and a heightened risk of burnout. Drawing on the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) framework, our analysis highlights how strategic business adjustments to high-pressure, cost-containment environments—contextualized by macroeconomic shifts such as recent minimum wage growth—can inadvertently trigger a complex chain of negative consequences for worker well-being. While claims regarding macro outcomes—such as market concentration, overall profitability, and long-term automation—remain suggestive and require future causal designs with rigorous controls, the primary contribution of this study is documenting the micro-level consequences. These adjustments are not merely business decisions. They have tangible and often detrimental consequences, which for employees manifest as greater job insecurity, precarious contracts, and a significant deterioration in psychosocial conditions, where the wage increase may be offset by increased stress and burnout. For the sector, therefore, the consequences include a potential loss of international competitiveness, greater market concentration that harms SMEs, and a disincentive to investment that compromises quality and long-term growth. The perception data collected in this study allows, for the first time, the quantification of the current state of job quality from the perspective of the workers themselves. Although our cross-sectional data cannot empirically prove that minimum wage increases directly caused these specific conditions, it provides crucial descriptive evidence of the lived reality that aligns with these theoretical adjustment channels. The evidence of widespread disagreement with the statement that workloads are reasonable and manageable (B3 = 1.8), especially in regions with high seasonality and in positions such as housekeeping, confirms that labour intensification is not merely a theoretical hypothesis, but a reality experienced by a substantial portion of the hotel workforce. Likewise, the confirmation that training and development opportunities are valued very negatively (D1 = 2.1; D2 = 1.9) indicates that business adjustments have also affected labour resources, deepening the imbalance between demands and resources predicted by the JD-R model.

Given the descriptive nature of our findings, we propose the following policy recommendations as informed propositions that warrant future rigorous causal testing. To potentially mitigate the adverse associations described, policy design might benefit from being more nuanced and multidimensional. Instead of generalized increases, the following approaches could be explored as hypotheses for future policy evaluation: gradualism and predictability, implementing gradual and predictable increases over time instead of abrupt shocks, would allow firms to plan and adjust their operations in a less disruptive way (O’Neill & McGinley, 2016); differentiation, considering sectoral or regional differentiation mechanisms that take into account productivity, cost structure, and exposure to international competition in each sector; complementary policies, accompanying minimum wage increases with policies that alleviate the burden on the most vulnerable firms, such as temporary reductions in social security contributions for the lowest wages or support programs for training and technological modernization of SMEs; and market power analysis, conducting a rigorous analysis of the level of competition in the local labour market before implementing significant increases, since in more competitive markets, such as the hotel industry in many regions, the risks of job losses are greater, warranting greater caution. While our cross-sectional data precludes definitive causal claims, these findings allow us to formulate these informed propositions. The finding that the most vulnerable workers (lower qualifications, greater seasonality) are the ones who suffer the greatest intensification of work leads us to hypothesize that complementary policies should include mechanisms to monitor and control working conditions in the most precarious segments, pending rigorous causal evidence linking minimum wage changes directly to these JD-R outcomes. Likewise, the strong correlation between the perception that employee well-being is a pillar of sustainability (S5) and organizational commitment (S4) indicates that companies that opt for adjustment strategies based solely on reducing labour costs not only harm the well-being of their employees but are also eroding their own capacity to retain talent and maintain service quality in the long term.

Practical Implications for Human Resource Management (HRM): Based on the empirical evidence gathered, this study offers three actionable recommendations for HRM. First, organizations must avoid cost-saving strategies that erode essential labour resources. Our data highlight severe deficits in perceived training and advancement opportunities (D1 = 2.1; D2 = 1.9). HR managers must recognize that cutting these non-wage investments directly depletes the crucial resources employees need to cope with increased demands. Second, firms must provide targeted support during seasonal spikes. The significantly lower workload manageability in highly seasonal regions like the Balearic and Canary Islands (B3 = 1.6) provides strong evidence that standard HR policies are insufficient during peak periods, requiring temporary operational reinforcements and specific psychosocial support. Finally, HRM must prioritize protecting housekeeping staff. With this specific group reporting the lowest agreement with workload manageability (B3 = 1.4) and severely limited development opportunities, targeted interventions such as task redesign, realistic room quotas, and enhanced ergonomic support are strictly necessary to prevent structural burnout.

In summary,

Table 6. Implications by stakeholder.

Hypothesis/Stakeholders	Economic/Sectoral Implications	Employee Perceptions (Survey Evidence)
Macro Trend 1: Potential Sectoral Restructuring
Economics	Secondary data suggests a slight reduction in the number of hotels (from 14,897 in 2019 to 14,712 in 2024); market concentration; consolidation in favour of larger chains.
Tourists	Higher prices and potentially worse product due to staff pressure and reduced investment in quality.
Policy makers	Risk of reduced international tourism demand if competitiveness erodes; lower domestic tourism; governance challenges in balancing wage policy with sector sustainability.
Social	Less qualified employment; job losses; reduction in employment opportunities for vulnerable groups.	Employees who retain their jobs report low agreement that workloads are reasonable (B3 mean = 1.8), especially in highly seasonal regions (Baleares and Canarias, B3 mean = 1.6), confirming work intensification as a hidden adjustment. Chambermaids, the most vulnerable group, report the lowest workload manageability scores (B3 mean = 1.4).
Macro Trend 2: Potential Profitability Pressures
Economics	Hotel concentration; reduction in SMEs in the sector; margin compression; reduction in reinvestment capacity (O’Neill & McGinley, 2016; Song et al., 2022)
Tourists	Potential deterioration of product quality due to underinvestment in facilities and staff training.
Policy makers	Reduced competitiveness of the tourism industry; need for SME support policies and gradual implementation of wage increases.
Social	Job and wage insecurity; precariousness; growth of informal economy (Pabon & Del Carpio, 2017)	Workers perceive very limited training (D1 = 2.1) and promotion opportunities (D2 = 1.9), indicating that non-wage investments are sacrificed to protect margins. The contrast between high valuation of employee care for sustainability (S5 mean = 4.8) and low investment in development reveals a gap between expectations and reality.
Macro Trend 3: Technological Adjustments and Vulnerability
Economics	Higher economic efficiency through concentrated market; technological investment; potential long-term productivity gains.
Tourists	Reduced human component in hotel service; potential loss of personalization and warmth in customer experience.
Policy makers	Emergence of new labour market with new job profiles; need for reskilling policies; need for reskilling and upskilling policies for displaced workers.
Social	Social tensions due to job losses; increased inequality; polarization between high-skilled and low-skilled employment.	Lower-skilled workers (chambermaids, sala/bar, staff) report the worst workload scores (B3 = 1.4 and 1.7 respectively) and lowest recognition (D3 = 2.0), bearing the brunt of intensification while facing displacement risk from automation. The moderating effect of sustainability awareness (H3 contrast) suggests that workers with strong sustainability values are more resilient, but this prospective effect has limits under sustained pressure.

Source: Own elaboration.

outlines the differentiated implications of high-pressure, cost-containment environments for various stakeholders in the hotel sector, contextualized by recent macroeconomic shifts, integrating both the macroeconomic effects discussed in the literature and the employee perceptions documented in this study. This overview highlights the multidimensional nature of the phenomenon and the need for public policies that balance the legitimate objectives of wage improvement with business sustainability and employee well-being.

Future research should move beyond the traditional focus on the quantity of employment to also quantify the impact on job quality. A major limitation of the current study is its reliance on single-item, self-reported measures, which prevents formal testing of measurement invariance and introduces a high risk of Common-Method Bias (CMB). Crucially, future studies must employ established, multi-item, psychometrically validated scales (such as the Maslach Burnout Inventory—MBI, and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale—UWES) to measure core JD-R constructs, perceived organizational support, and sustainability awareness, avoiding the limitations of single-item measures and ceiling effects encountered in our exploratory analysis. Additionally, future research should incorporate procedural remedies for CMB (e.g., temporal separation, marker variables) and use longitudinal data and targeted surveys that explicitly incorporate direct measures of individual exposure to minimum wage changes, effectively measuring variations in indicators of physical and mental health, job stress, and overall worker satisfaction before and after these policy implementations. Furthermore, because the survey was kept strictly anonymous to protect frontline respondents and encourage honest participation without fear of retaliation, specific hotel identifiers were not collected. Consequently, we could not employ formal multi-level modelling (HLM) with nested random effects by hotel, relying instead on region and hotel category as control variables.

Furthermore, it is crucial to delve deeper into the interaction between the minimum wage and the informal economy in the tourism sector, a complex phenomenon often underestimated in impact analyses. Finally, studies should analyse the dynamic effects on investment and long-term market structure to understand whether minimum wage increases are accelerating business concentration and automation in the hotel sector. This study has taken a step in that direction by incorporating a detailed analysis of employee perceptions, but its cross-sectional nature prevents the establishment of definitive causal relationships. Future research should be designed with a longitudinal approach, allowing the same cohort of workers to be followed through successive minimum wage increases to observe how their perceptions of well-being and professional development evolve in response to business strategies. It would also be valuable to complement quantitative data with qualitative studies that delve into the experiences of the most affected groups, such as cleaning staff, to better understand the mechanisms through which work intensification impacts their health and family life. Additionally, building on the findings of this study, future research should explicitly investigate the paradox between the high perceived importance of employee well-being for sustainability and the harsh reality of deteriorating working conditions, exploring how organizations might effectively close this gap.

Ultimately, this article invites reflection on the competitiveness model of the Spanish hotel sector. Macroeconomic data show a growing sector, capable of attracting a record number of tourists and generating increasing revenue. However, microsocial data reveal that this success is based, in part, on working conditions that many employees perceive as unsustainable. The paradox is clear: a sector that prides itself on excellence and quality of service can no longer ignore the strain on its human capital. Mitigating seasonal burnout, as proposed in the title of this article, is not only a matter of social justice but also a requirement for the long-term sustainability of the sector. Minimum wage policies alone cannot resolve this imbalance; these changes must be accompanied by a transformation of human resource management practices that prioritizes the well-being and development of workers. Only then can we truly speak of sustainable tourism.