The Adoption of Modern Sports Technologies from Professional Settings to Everyday Life

Abstract

This study examines how advanced sports technologies, initially designed for elite athletes, are being applied in everyday contexts. Despite the proliferation of wearable and AI-powered tools, the sports management literature has largely overlooked how these innovations transition from professional use to consumer settings. Addressing this gap, the article evaluates key technologies based on cost, complexity, accessibility, and user-friendliness to determine their viability for broader adoption. The findings reveal a clear divide: while affordable, intuitive devices like WHOOP bands and Polar monitors are well-suited for general use, complex systems such as SportVU and VALD remain limited to elite environments. This study underscores simplicity, affordability, and contextual usability as critical enablers of adoption. By connecting theoretical innovation models with real-world patterns, this research offers practical guidance for developers, educators, and policymakers seeking to promote equitable access to sports technologies.

1. Introduction

The sports industry has become increasingly competitive in recent decades, prompting a growing reliance on advanced technologies to gain a strategic advantage (Staunton, 2023; Ratten, 2014). Professional sports organizations leverage innovation to improve athlete performance, streamline decision-making, and enhance fan engagement (Ratten, 2019b). These technological advances, ranging from artificial intelligence (AI) to wearable devices, are transforming elite sports and beginning to influence everyday fitness practices.

The relevance of sports technology has surged due to heightened interest from organizations, policymakers, and researchers alike (Ratten, 2019a). As AI and wearable technologies evolve from theoretical models into practical tools, they reshape how athletes train, how coaches strategize, and how fans connect with sports (Wei et al., 2021; Magera & Vounckx, 2018). These technologies now extend beyond elite teams, offering recreational users potential health and performance benefits. For example, devices like fitness trackers and heart rate monitors have become commonplace among general consumers seeking to monitor their well-being (Ambler, 2024).

Despite the increasing use of wearable technology, its practical application remains uncertain. While some users obtain long-term benefits from their trackers, others encounter obstacles in incorporating them into their daily routines (Fadhil, 2019). Many high-end technologies remain confined to professional settings due to cost, complexity, or the need for specialized infrastructure (Constantinou, 2025; Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023; Kusnirova et al., 2024). Moreover, while generally positive, consumer attitudes are influenced by price sensitivity and usability (Ratten, 2019b). Despite prior studies investigating the utilization of technology in elite sports, a significant gap remains in understanding the mechanisms and obstacles associated with adapting these technologies to everyday contexts. Limited research has examined which technologies are realistically transferable and the factors influencing their adoption by non-professional users. These factors raise essential questions about which innovations can realistically transition into daily life and what barriers may impede their adoption.

This study examines the migration of advanced sports technologies from professional environments to consumer use. It aims to evaluate which tools have successfully entered the mainstream, identify those exclusive to elite sports, and explore the reasons behind their varied adoption rates. This study addresses the existing gap between theoretical sports innovation models and actual consumer behavior, thus addressing a neglected area in the literature and providing practical direction for technology developers, policymakers and educators. By doing so, the research contributes to a broader understanding of how technological innovation in sports can be leveraged to promote fitness and well-being across diverse populations. The findings suggest that while some devices (such as wearable fitness trackers) are well-suited for widespread use, other systems, such as AI-powered performance analytics, face significant challenges in scaling to the broader public.

2. Theoretical Framework

Technology usually refers to a tool that facilitates a process (Bozeman, 2000). As a product of the social environment, individuals are required to use it (Pinch & Henry, 1999). It is linked to societal needs and influencers, which see knowledge as a malleable variable (Ratten, 2012).

In a sporting setting, the examination of technology is frequently integrated with other fields, such as medicine or engineering. The phrase ‘sports technology’ once referred primarily to product-based innovations, but it has evolved to encompass wireless and other technological forms. Sports technology advances as innovations introduce various products into the market (Bozeman, 2000).

Technological innovation must be incorporated at all management levels, including lower, middle, and upper levels (Ratten, 2013). Given its ongoing significance, managers must scrutinize sports technology innovation and the emerging themes relevant to practice and research (Ratten, 2019b).

Sports technology encompasses innovations designed to enhance human engagement and athletic performance in sports. These include technical innovations aimed at enhancing athlete training and performance, and tools that assist referees in making more accurate decisions during games (Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023). A sports technology tool may take the form of a product, service, or process. Different sports require specific technologies tailored to their respective environments, including land, water, or air, meaning that the athletic context dictates technological requirements (Ratten, 2019a).

Sports technology increasingly refers to computer-assisted devices or gadgets used in sports. With the rise of mobile commerce, it is also increasingly associated with mobile communication tools. This evolving definition reflects broader technological shifts in the commercial landscape (Ratten, 2019a).

Major League Baseball’s electronic pitch calling system facilitates constant communication between coaches and players on the pitch. Ultimately, technological improvements in sports aim to propel the sports tech business toward greater optimization. Standard sports technology items encompass wearable technology, data tracking and gathering, sports injury prevention, event scheduling, goal-line technology, video analysis, and virtual reality (Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023).

Several theoretical models of sports innovation are relevant to clarify the adoption and spread of these improvements. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) highlights perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use as primary determinants of user acceptance. TAM has been utilized in sports technology to elucidate the readiness of both professional and amateur users to embrace wearables, AI-driven systems, and mobile fitness applications (Wang et al., 2023).

Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) theory is another foundational model that classifies adopters into five categories: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. It also defines essential attributes of innovation, relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability that affect adoption (Turner, 2007). The DOI has been extensively utilized in health and sports sciences to evaluate the dissemination of new technology among elite athletes and the general populace (Greenhalgh et al., 2004).

The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) expands upon TAM and DOI by integrating additional factors, including performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions. The UTAUT model has demonstrated significant predictive validity in sports settings, particularly in relation to the adoption of wearable technology and AI-driven training tools (Hamari & Koivisto, 2015).

Video analysis is widely used to track athletic performance. It involves recording games or training sessions and later analyzing the footage, sometimes in real-time, to identify areas for improvement. These tools allow coaches to evaluate both individual skills and team strategies (Staunton, 2023).

Global Positioning System (GPS) sensors track athletes’ movements, speed, and distance during outdoor sports such as running or cycling. Velocity-based training sensors help measure performance in strength training. Sleep-tracking apps analyze rest quality to support recovery. Various other sensors assist in injury prevention (Staunton, 2023; Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023).

Wearable technology in sports includes several devices designed to collect specific performance data. These include GPS trackers, heart rate monitors, and motion sensors. Their primary function is to provide accurate, real-time feedback for optimizing training, performance, and injury prevention (Ambler, 2024).

Heart rate monitors track cardiovascular performance, providing real-time insights into exertion and recovery. This data helps tailor intensity levels and minimize the risk of overtraining. These monitors can also help detect cardiovascular anomalies and support fitness monitoring (Ambler, 2024; Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023).

Wearable cameras provide a first-person view of performance and are particularly beneficial in sports like American football and ice hockey, where spatial awareness is crucial. The footage is used to refine tactics and improve in-game awareness (Ambler, 2024).

Smartwatches and fitness bands are multifunctional devices that monitor many parameters, such as heart rate, step count, caloric expenditure, and sleep patterns. They offer essential data for professional training programs and are frequently utilized by amateur athletes. The practicality and versatility of smartwatches contribute to their popularity in numerous sporting disciplines (Ambler, 2024).

In practical scenarios, active, health-conscious individuals utilize GPS-enabled devices, particularly sports watches, which generally demonstrate accuracy in recorded course distances (Pobiruchin et al., 2017). Toledo et al. (2012) further observes that wearable technology is another use of AI in sports which possesses significant potential for future advancement.

Artificial intelligence (AI), established as a discipline in the 1950s, is defined as a system’s capacity to accurately comprehend and learn from external input, applying the acquired knowledge to attain specified goals and resolve issues through adaptable methods (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2019). It pertains to a domain of computer science that investigates the capabilities of computers to learn, think, and reason (Ding, 2019). Housman (2018) stated that AI possesses two capabilities: (1) to produce repeated tasks by forecasting the results of category, data and (2) to emulate human decision-making by addressing problems using algorithms.

As AI systems become more advanced and automated, they can process vast amounts of data, make rapid decisions, and extract insights that surpass human capabilities (Lee & Lee, 2021; Wei et al., 2021).

Machine learning, a subset of AI, supports decision-making through sophisticated algorithms (Qian et al., 2020).

AI has become increasingly common in speech recognition, image analysis, and autonomous systems. It is transitioning from theory to widespread application, including the partial replacement of human labour in specific domains (Russell & Norvig, 2016; Čirčová et al., 2025).

In sports, AI supports sustainable innovation when combined with data science and other fields. As data in sports increases, AI offers more efficient alternatives to traditional statistical methods for training optimization and performance analysis (Roll & Wylie, 2016; Wei et al., 2021). Artificial intelligence algorithms examine extensive datasets to provide insights into performance trends and injury hazards. AI, as an assistive technology (Brenner et al., 2023), is employed in player recruitment and recovery processes, augmenting decision-making in professional sports (Brenner et al., 2023) and facilitating athletes’ physical education training via the simulation of training scenarios (Wei et al., 2021).

The swift advancement of wearable artificial intelligence devices globally has been a trend in the evolution of the Internet of Things (Wei et al., 2021). The hardware core comprises various physiological information sensors and wearable technologies, whereas the fundamental software technologies involve wireless network transmission and statistical data processing. Technology integrates sensors, multimedia, and wireless connections to facilitate sensing, feedback, and interactive experiences for fundamental human body movements. It may gather human physiological characteristics during physical training and offer athletes practical recommendations via a big data analysis system. The primary benefit of smart wearable watches is their portability. Historically, health testing specialists employed prominent, fixed instruments to gather data on users’ physical attributes; however, this approach resulted in limited data collection and difficulties in identifying infrequent occurrences. Consequently, the emergence of wearable AI technologies may effectively address this deficiency (Wei et al., 2021).

Artificial intelligence influences nearly every major professional game. That represents a significant disruption to commercial operations since media involvement increasingly becomes the primary source of revenue in elite sports. There is a trend for fans to seek increased access to groups concerning their favored game, and innovation is a crucial means to address this demand. Simulated intelligence provides enhanced systems that allow spectators to feel closer than ever to the athletes and the game (Toledo et al., 2012).

3. Materials and Methods

This article addresses a research gap concerning the real-world adoption potential of professional sports technologies by the general population. The methodology comprises three key components: (1) a literature review, (2) content analysis, and (3) a comparative evaluation.

A systematic literature review was conducted using the snowball sampling technique, which is commonly employed in qualitative research to identify additional relevant sources based on the citations within selected academic publications (Greenhalgh & Peacock, 2005). The review focused on peer-reviewed journal articles published in 2023 and later, emphasizing those discussing the application, adoption, and impact of sports technologies, including wearable devices, AI-driven tools, and injury prevention systems. Key databases searched included Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, using keywords such as ‘sports technology,’ ‘wearable devices,’ ‘AI in sports,’ and ‘technology adoption.’

Following the literature review, a qualitative content analysis of secondary data was conducted to identify prevailing trends, benefits, barriers, and user perceptions related to integrating sports technologies in non-professional settings. Content analysis is a well-established method for interpreting textual data within its context, and it was conducted according to the guidelines outlined by Hsieh and Shannon (2005).

The final phase involved a comparative evaluation of selected sports technologies to assess their potential for widespread adoption by consumers. Four evaluation criteria were used: (1) cost, (2) technical complexity, (3) accessibility, and (4) user-friendliness. These criteria were selected based on their conceptual alignment with established models of technology adoption. Specifically, ‘cost’ reflects perceived barriers (as discussed in DOI and UTAUT), while ‘technical complexity’ aligns with the ‘effort expectancy’ in UTAUT and the ‘complexity’ factor in DOI. ‘Accessibility’ relates to both ‘facilitating conditions’ (UTAUT) and ‘observability’ (DOI), and ‘user-friendliness’ corresponds directly to ‘perceived ease of use’ in TAM. These dimensions collectively capture the technological, behavioral, and structural factors that influence whether consumers adopt or reject new sports innovations.

The comparative analysis was conducted using a scoring system across the four criteria, where each technology was assigned a qualitative score: High, Medium, or Low. Thresholds, as shown in

Table 1. Thresholds used in methods.

Criterion	Low	Medium	High
Cost	<USD 200 or <USD 20/month	USD 200–1000 or USD 20–50/month	>USD 1000 or >USD 50/month
Technical Complexity	No setup needed	Basic configuration required	Needs experts/infrastructure
Accessibility	Wide retail availability	Limited vendors/partners	Institutional-only
User-Friendliness	Intuitive/app-based	Some training needed	Requires professional skills

, were established based on data collected from product documentation, pricing information, user reviews, and expert commentary.

Each technology was placed into one of two outcome categories based on aggregated scores: (1) Consumer Viable, or (2) Elite Only. This classification helped distinguish technologies that realistically serve broader populations from those confined to professional contexts.

This approach facilitated the classification of technologies into two main categories: (1) those likely to succeed in consumer markets, and (2) those likely to remain limited to elite sports contexts. Particular attention was paid to how these innovations align with or challenge existing sports management and organizational theories, which traditionally prioritize behavioral and structural elements over technical advancements (Ratten, 2019b).

4. Results

4.1. Overview of New Sports Technology

Currently, performance personnel across several sports utilize GPS devices, intelligent cameras, artificial intelligence, and various other technologies to track player activities. This abundance of data is advantageous for sports scientists and coaches. It provides transparent insights into the performance of the athletes under their management, encompassing metrics such as average speed, distance covered during a game or training session, and acceleration and deceleration, which assist in determining the appropriate intensity for player performance (Constantinou, 2025).

Various performance-tracking technologies are employed in professional sports settings (Staunton, 2023).

The Catapult GPS product line S7/T7 is a prominent offering in the GPS tracker sector. These sophisticated trackers provide unmatched precision and extensive data analysis, rendering them indispensable instruments for elite athletes and teams (Ambler, 2024). Catapult One provides athletes and coaches with a complete device that monitors performance data. It is engineered to deliver comprehensive insights into an athlete’s performance, facilitating enhanced training results and optimal performance levels. It provides the information necessary for success for both professional athletes and committed amateurs (Finster-Rowen, 2025; Ambler, 2024). The Vector T7 is a novel wearable gadget designed with the ClearSky system, a local positioning system (LPS) that facilitates tracking and assessment of athletic performance in indoor settings. The system generates position and position-derived metrics, including distance, velocity, and acceleration (Varley et al., 2023). Catapult One is specifically engineered for those seeking analysis, insights, and recommendations tailored to their training. It examines positioning utilizing heat maps (Finster-Rowen, 2025). Technologies like Catapult offer data that may be used to assess player performance, pinpoint areas for enhancement, and formulate plans for upcoming games (Ambler, 2024; Varley et al., 2023; Staunton, 2023). Catapult’s product costs vary greatly depending on the product, with a full range of wearable, video, and athlete management solutions for individual consumer and professional sports teams, and the volume of purchases. Most of Catapult’s technology is sold through a SaaS (Software as a Service) model to its elite clients, whereby teams pay a monthly fee to access the performance data captured by the wearable devices worn by the athletes (CATAPULT, 2025).

Whoop 4.0 and Polar H9 are excellent tools for gathering significant biometric data (O’Donnell, 2024; Staunton, 2023; Ambler, 2024). WHOOP bands track physiological metrics, including heart rate variability, sleep patterns, and recovery state, offering athletes data to enhance training and avert overexertion (Ambler, 2024). WHOOP was initially developed to enhance professional athletes’ performance. However, it has now broadened its scope to assist a diverse array of individuals in comprehending their bodies and enhancing health and fitness. The expense varies; for a basic monthly membership with a 12-month commitment, the fee is 27 GBP each month. The 24-month membership paid upfront is 384 GBP (equivalent to GBP 16 per month), while an upfront annual membership cost 229 GBP (equivalent to 19.08 GBP per month) (O’Donnell, 2024). The Polar H9 is a premium heart rate sensor for regular athletic activities. It includes the Polar Soft Strap and precisely monitors heart rate. The Polar H9 is compatible with the Polar Beat app and numerous third-party applications. Users can effortlessly convert their phone into a fitness tracker (Polar watch, 2024). Its cost depends on the exact model, but it can be bought from EUR 59.90 to EUR 99.90 (POLAR, 2025).

Training software is available in many formats and can be used to organize and monitor an athlete’s training regime. Platforms such as Teambuildr or VALD can assist strength and conditioning, allowing coaches to formulate and assess effective training programs (Staunton, 2023). Teambuildr is a versatile platform suitable for coaches in many environments. Numerous coaches visit Teambuildr daily to create training programs, develop questionnaires, and retrieve athlete and client performance data (TeamBuildr, 2024a). TeamBuildr provides a versatile solution for efficiently delivering training to athletes, team members, and individual clients. Optimized workflows, remote oversight, and sophisticated data analytics provide economical and prompt replies to identify areas for enhancement. The pricing for TeamBuildr is contingent upon the requirements and scale of the organization. Annual plans vary from USD 600 to USD 2900. They provide adaptable subscription plans for various user demographics, including individual trainers, small teams, and large organizations (TeamBuildr, 2024b). VALD technology assesses, observes, and regulates physical performance across court, field, track, individual, and team sports. Elite sports teams, universities, hospitals, clinics, and defense departments rely on it to deliver insights into the health and performance of their players, clients, and personnel (VALD PERFORMANCE, 2025c).

VALD provides various devices, such as ForceDesks (a portable, robust, easy-to-use force plate system for analyzing jumps, strength, power, asymmetry, and more) (VALD PERFORMANCE, 2025a), Humantrack (3D (Three-Dimensional) motion capture and biomechanical analysis in a portable, plug-and-play system) (VALD PERFORMANCE, 2025b), and many more. ALD operates on a fixed-price subscription model spread over a three-year agreement (VALD PERFORMANCE, 2023). VALD ForceDecks can be bought for USD 3200 annually (software included). Other similar devices from different manufacturers include KINVENT K-Force Plates (USD 2690), KINVENT K-Deltas (USD 5990) and Hawkin Dynamics Gen5 Force Plates (USD 5000) that have fixed, one-time hardware prices (Fetman, 2024).

The MySwing Professional and SportVU systems represent an exemplary integration of AI in physical education training.

The MySwing Professional is a training device for golfers that precisely records the player’s movements and the club’s trajectory through comprehensive body movement analysis. It is an AI-driven product created by Noitom. This apparatus comprises 17 wireless full-body sensor nodes and integrated wearable retractable straps equipped with built-in wireless antennae and preinstalled MySwing Professional software for real-time playback and cloud storage. The precision positioning system accurately captures the player’s movements due to the many micro motion sensors worn by the player. A sensor near the club’s handle can record spatial movement data and deliver analytical results. Subsequently, it can employ various data visualization techniques to assist both players and coaches in analyzing technical nuances more effectively. MySwing Professional offers numerous advantages, including simplicity and intelligent functionality in practical applications. It can assist players in enhancing their daily training to refine their pertinent talents. While the official website provides detailed information about the product’s features and applications, it does not list a specific price. A similar 3D motion capture system in the market, MySwing Balance, is priced at USD 3500 (Pro, 2017).

SportVU is an advanced basketball game-analyzing technology utilized in the NBA (National Basketball Association). Six cameras, mounted from the arena ceiling, monitor players and basketballs to evaluate each dribble and pass, proximity to teammates, and distance covered during the game. The device can capture 25 photos per second to monitor and assess the player’s movement. Various sensors are additionally attached behind the camera for dynamic collection, trajectory analysis, data extraction, and subsequent importation of the processed data into the database. The technology supplies conventional data records and addresses numerous complex enquiries that traditional data analysts cannot resolve. Consequently, SportVU can convert previously immeasurable game data into a dataset that can be further analyzed and utilized through machine learning techniques, aiding team data analysts and coaches in acquiring more profound insights into their teams’ dynamics. This system offers an alternative means of augmenting and substituting standard coaching methods to a certain degree. SportVU can precisely track athletes’ movements and efficiently collect and analyze extensive data with AI algorithms. This clever solution enables coaches to analyze athletes’ sports data efficiently and develop tailored training regimens accordingly. This visual target monitoring technology enables athletes to train in a manner tailored to their features. Consequently, the AI-based visual target tracking system is essential for physical education in contemporary society (Wei et al., 2021). The annual cost for the SportVU camera system is about USD 100,000 (Lowe, 2013).

The avoidance of injuries has significantly influenced the advancement of innovative sports technologies. Sports injuries can be catastrophic for an athlete and may ultimately terminate their career. Prevention is essential for maintaining team health and optimal performance. Advanced mouthguards equipped with integrated sensors can alert athletes when resting is advisable. Mouthguards illuminate following a head contact, emitting red for severe collisions and blue for moderate impacts. ORB Sport Smart Mouthguard can be bought for USD 349.00 with the required monthly USD 7.99 app membership (ORB Sport, 2024).

Helmets are classified as wearables and are beneficial in goalie roles or sports such as American football. Helmets frequently incorporate integrated headsets and/or video functionalities that facilitate communication between athletes and their support staff, enhancing performance and execution. Over the decades, helmet technology and other football equipment have evolved to enhance protective measures and mitigate injuries, including concussions. Advanced helmets are equipped with shock-absorbing technology to safeguard an athlete’s head during collisions. These are designed to mimic automotive airbags and discharge air to mitigate the whiplash effect an athlete may encounter upon head trauma (Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023). LIVALL Smart helmets with high-quality polycarbonate shells and advanced shock-absorbing EPS (expanded polystyrene) foam are priced at 549.00 EUR (LIVALL, 2023).

4.2. Benefits of Using Sports Technology

The advancement of broadcast sports has improved the experience for fans by providing real-time on-screen data analytics, referee decisions, replays, and commentary, regardless of whether viewers are in the front row or at home. Physical presence at a sporting event is no longer necessary to experience the atmosphere of being on the sidelines (Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023).

Progress in sports injury diagnostics has enabled medical experts in the athletic sector to assess players more rapidly, facilitating their prompt return to the field. This innovative technology enables trainers and coaches to avert injuries proactively. The trainer profession has experienced a notable enhancement due to using these advanced instruments. These innovative devices have facilitated and enhanced research, enabling trainers to establish preventative care for their players. The advancement of heart rate monitors, training regimens, and recuperation systems has enhanced athlete health, reducing injuries. Diagnostic and analytical data-collection technologies have been developed to assist with sideline decision-making, including referee tools and playback technology (Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023).

Wearable technology has revolutionized athletes’ and coaches’ training and performance analysis methods by delivering an abundance of accurate, real-time data (Ambler, 2024). A primary advantage of wearable technology is its capacity to reduce injury risks. Devices such as heart rate monitors and motion sensors can early identify overtraining, weariness, and other injury indicators. By observing these signs, coaches and athletes can modify training intensities and rest durations to avert injuries. Monitoring heart rate variability can indicate whether an athlete has not fully recuperated, facilitating preemptive actions to prevent overuse problems. Wearable technology supplies essential data to increase performance, improve coaching, and mitigate injury risks, resulting in safer and more successful athletic experiences (Ambler, 2024).

In addition to enhancing athlete performance and spectator engagement, sports technology is essential for optimizing the operational functions of sports organizations. Implementing sophisticated cloud and DevOps technologies can enhance the management of digital platforms, assuring the seamless supply of content and services to fans and stakeholders. Companies such as OpSourced specialize in delivering cloud and DevOps skills, assisting sports organizations in optimization (Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023). Advancements in camera technology and video monitoring assist referees in making more accurate decisions. They enhance gameplay fairness and equity by eliminating human error (Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023).

Wearable technology provides numerous advantages for players in diverse sports. The primary benefits encompass improved sports performance and the general well-being of the player. Wearable gadgets, including GPS trackers and heart rate monitors, furnish extensive data on velocity, distance, cardiac rate, and movement patterns. Analyzing this data enables athletes to identify areas for enhancement, refine their training regimens, and elevate their performance. Football players can utilize GPS data to optimize their running patterns and improve their effectiveness on the pitch. Coaches acquire essential insights from wearable technology, facilitating better-informed decisions about training intensity, player positioning, and game plans. Real-time data regarding an athlete’s physical state and performance indicators assists coaches in formulating personalized training regimens, leading to enhanced coaching efficacy and improved athletic results (Ambler, 2024). The potential advantages can be encapsulated as enhanced accuracy, diminished errors, expedited and superior care, improved treatment and diagnosis, augmented health data security and privacy, facilitation of objective data-driven decision-making, ease of record transfer and retrieval by subjects, scalability, reduced operational costs, and conservation of time and space for practitioners (Staunton, 2023).

4.3. Real-Life Adoption of Sports Technology

Some sports technology has become broadly accessible and is not exclusively designated for elite athletes (Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023). Numerous sports technologies initially designed for professional players have effectively migrated into common usage.

Professional sports technology was evaluated based on selected four criteria: (1) cost, (2) technical complexity, (3) accessibility, and (4) user-friendliness. Based on the evaluation, the technologies were then categorized into two main groups: (1) those likely to succeed in consumer markets, and (2) those likely to remain limited to elite sports contexts. These classifications were based on thresholds established in the Materials and Methods section. To enhance interpretability, Figure 1 below visualizes the comparative evaluation scores for each technology across the four criteria. Higher scores indicate greater cost and complexity, as well as lower accessibility and usability. This graphical summary highlights the sharp divide between elite-exclusive and consumer-viable tools.

Technologies were categorized into either ‘Consumer Viable’ or ‘Elite Only’ based on their aggregate scores across the four evaluation criteria: cost, technical complexity, accessibility, and user-friendliness. Technology was classified as ‘Consumer Viable’ if it received at least three ‘Low’ or ‘Medium’ ratings across the criteria, especially in cost and usability, factors most strongly tied to adoption by general consumers, as per TAM and UTAUT. Conversely, technologies that scored ‘High’ or ‘Very High’ in cost and complexity and ‘Low’ in accessibility or usability were categorized as ‘Elite Only.’ This group typically required institutional infrastructure and expert handling or had prohibitively high pricing, thus limiting real-world applicability for the average user. The summary of this evaluation, including the final category allocation, is shown in

Table 2. Evaluation of professional sports technology.

Technology	Cost	Technical Complexity	Accessibility	User-Friendliness	Category
Catapult GPS (S7/T7)	High	High	Low	Medium	Elite Only
WHOOP 4.0	Low–Medium	Low	High	High	Consumer Viable
Polar H9	Low	Low	High	High	Consumer Viable
Teambuildr	Medium–High	Medium	Medium	Medium	Consumer Viable
VALD Performance	High	High	Low	Medium	Elite Only
MySwing Professional	High	High	Low	Medium	Elite Only
SportVU System	Very High	Very High	Low	Low	Elite Only
Advanced Helmets and Mouthguards	High	High	Low	Low	Elite Only

.

To complement the individual evaluations of specific technologies,

Table 3. Technology category summary.

Category	Advantages	Disadvantages
Consumer Viable	Affordable; easy to use; widely available; high user engagement; app integration	Limited data depth; fewer features; less durable; may lack expert support
Elite Only	High precision; advanced analytics; professional-grade insights; customization	Expensive; technically complex; requires infrastructure and staff; low accessibility

, shown below, summarises the key advantages and disadvantages of the two major categories.

This comparison highlights the core trade-offs between professional-grade precision and widespread usability. While elite technologies offer unmatched performance analytics, their high cost and complexity limit access to them. In contrast, consumer-viable tools succeed not by technical superiority but by meeting users’ needs for simplicity, affordability, and convenience, factors that strongly influence adoption according to innovation models.

The assessment of several professional sports technologies indicates a definitive differentiation between those appropriate for elite use and those with prospects for consumer market integration. Expensive and intricate systems like the Catapult GPS (S7/T7), VALD Performance, MySwing Professional, and the SportVU system are predominantly restricted to elite sports environments due to their limited accessibility and reduced user-friendliness. These technologies frequently necessitate specialized infrastructure or professional analysis, rendering them unfeasible for extensive public use. Conversely, more accessible and user-friendly technologies such as the Polar H9 and WHOOP 4.0 have significant potential in consumer markets owing to their cost-effectiveness and simplicity of use. Simultaneously, platforms such as Teambuildr provide a sensible balance, with intermediate levels of expense and intricacy, rendering them suitable for professional teams and committed amateur users. This contrast underscores the importance of simplicity, cost, and accessibility in the effective transition of sports technology from elite to commonplace settings.

Initially intended for elite athletes, technologies such as fitness trackers and smartwatches are now extensively utilized by the general populace to assess daily activity levels, heart rate, and sleep quality. These technologies enable individuals to proactively approach their health and fitness (Lourdes, 2024). Fitness watches are the predominant form of wearable technology. Both professional athletes and amateurs utilize fitness trackers to monitor quantifiable metrics, including heart rate, calories expended, step count, running lengths, and pace. Fitness watches are beneficial for novices to monitor their advancement and achieve their fitness objectives (Staunton, 2023). Sleep-tracking devices assist both athletes and non-athletes in monitoring recovery and enhancing sleep patterns (Chinoy et al., 2020). A 2025 longitudinal study analyzing nearly a million days of data from 11,914 WHOOP users found that a higher frequency of wear (>6 days/week) was associated with significantly lower resting heart rates, higher heart rate variability, more consistent sleep, and increased physical activity (Grosicki et al., 2025). These findings demonstrate how a tool initially validated in elite sports contexts can drive measurable health improvements in everyday users. Another example of how sports technology is crossing from elite to consumer use comes from recent advances in wearable-based fitness tracking. Spathis et al. (2022) developed and validated a method to estimate cardio-respiratory fitness (VO₂max) using data collected from everyday wearable devices in real-world settings. Their algorithm was tested on a large sample of over 11,000 participants and followed more than 2600 individuals over time. The wearable-based VO₂max estimates showed a strong correlation with results from traditional lab-based fitness tests. This research shows how advanced physiological assessments, once available only to elite athletes in controlled environments, can now be delivered to the general public using consumer wearables.

AI coaching software offers customized training regimens and instantaneous feedback, rendering professional-grade coaching attainable for amateur athletes. These programs evaluate user data to provide customized training suggestions, improving the efficacy of fitness regimens (Vasilchenko, 2024). AI-driven applications offer individualized fitness coaching to users, including training regimens customized to their specific requirements.

Smart insoles, posture monitors, and injury-predicting biometric sensors are employed in physiotherapy and by active individuals to avert injuries (Verma et al., 2024).

Nonetheless, implementing these technologies also poses numerous challenges. A significant difficulty with GPS data is the overwhelming volume of information and the multitude of parameters available for analysis (Constantinou, 2025). The accumulation and retention of personal health information by wearable technologies also pose privacy concerns. Users must understand how to use and safeguard their data. Cilliers (2020) discovered that most users lack awareness of the privacy issues associated with their data and the protective measures for data gathered by wearable devices.

Various aspects determine the effective integration of professional sports technologies into ordinary consumer use. Comprehending the typical expenditure for app development is essential for sports organizations aiming to incorporate sophisticated technologies into their operations, enabling smart budgeting for creative solutions that improve athlete performance and audience engagement (Oosthuizen & Hunter, 2023). The cost and affordability of professional sports technologies significantly impact their successful translation into ordinary consumer use. Numerous advanced technologies designed for elite athletes are prohibitively expensive, rendering them unattainable for the typical customer unless manufacturers create more economical options. Wearable technologies such as WHOOP bands and GPS trackers have implemented subscription-based models to mitigate initial expenses, enhancing their attractiveness to non-athletes. An additional significant component is user-friendliness (Bustaman et al., 2023). Technologies necessitating little configuration and offering easy integration with mobile applications or smart home ecosystems are more likely to be adopted by ordinary people. Adopting technology among the general population is likely to be constrained if it is excessively complex or necessitates specialized knowledge for data interpretation. The dimensions, ergonomics, and aesthetics of wearable sporting devices are significant factors. Lightweight, inconspicuous, and comfortable devices for prolonged use are more likely to be assimilated into everyday life. Consumers prioritize wearables that facilitate movement, rendering ergonomic design a crucial factor for mainstream acceptance, as evidenced by the popularity of fitness watches. The perceived advantages and efficacy are also significant factors (Bustaman et al., 2023). Consumers are more inclined to invest in technology when they observe concrete enhancements in their fitness, performance, or overall well-being. Devices that deliver real-time feedback, monitor progress, or mitigate injuries, such as fitness trackers and heart rate monitors, have achieved significant appeal due to their provision of actionable insights that users can readily integrate into their routines. Concerns around data privacy and security may be a substantial obstacle to adoption. Numerous sports technologies gather sensitive biometric data, prompting apprehensions regarding the storage, sharing, and use of personal information by corporations. Manufacturers must adopt rigorous data protection protocols and provide transparency on data utilization to foster consumer trust. Social impact and business dynamics also dictate the adoption of sports technologies. The endorsement of technology by prominent athletes, fitness influencers, and sports brands generates awareness and motivates non-athletes to adopt similar practices. Peer influence and the increasing trend of self-quantification (Jain et al., 2024), in which individuals monitor their fitness and health indicators, have facilitated the widespread acceptance of wearable sports devices.

5. Discussion

This study investigated the transition of advanced sports technologies from elite athletic environments to everyday consumer use, focusing on their practicality, accessibility, and broader societal relevance. The findings reinforce the growing relevance of sports technology in public health and fitness management but also highlight persistent barriers, most notably cost, technical complexity, and accessibility, that hinder widespread consumer adoption.

The comparative evaluation of technologies across four criteria (cost, technical complexity, accessibility, and user-friendliness) revealed a clear divide between technologies suited for elite environments and those viable for general consumers. For example, high-cost and complex systems like SportVU, VALD Performance, and MySwing Professional remain inaccessible to non-professionals due to their need for specialized infrastructure and expert interpretation. Though highly beneficial in elite sports for data-driven decision-making and injury prevention, these technologies are not designed for ease of use or affordability, rendering them impractical for broader consumer markets.

Conversely, technologies such as WHOOP 4.0, Polar H9, and Teambuildr, which are lower in cost, easier to operate, and more accessible, demonstrate greater potential for integration into everyday fitness routines. Their success can be attributed to their ability to deliver tangible benefits, such as personalized performance feedback and health monitoring, without requiring deep technical expertise. These findings align with prior observations that user-friendliness, affordability, and perceived utility are crucial determinants of consumer adoption of health and fitness technologies.

Nonetheless, the adoption of technology does not transpire in isolation. Societal and cultural norms, particularly in non-Western and emerging markets, play a crucial role in shaping both the appeal and usability of these technologies. For instance, collectivist cultures may prioritize group-based physical activity and may not place the same value on individualized data tracking as Western consumers do (Srite & Karahanna, 2006). Additionally, perceptions of body image, digital privacy, and medical technology differ across regions and influence willingness to adopt health-related wearables (Alsaleh et al., 2019; Lupton, 2014). In countries where fitness culture is less commercialized, or gender norms restrict physical activity, wearables may not be viewed as necessary or socially acceptable (Chong et al., 2020). Digital infrastructure and language barriers also impede adoption. In rural areas of Asia, Latin America, and Africa, even affordable wearables may be underutilized due to poor mobile internet coverage, a lack of localized software interfaces, or insufficient digital literacy (Fong, 2009). Therefore, while this study’s findings have broad relevance, regional customization is essential for successful implementation.

The results also underscore the need to revisit traditional sports management theories, which often focus on organizational behavior while overlooking the rapid evolution of technological integration. Emerging technologies are not only transforming athletic performance but also redefining consumer engagement with sport and fitness. Therefore, including digital innovation in mainstream sports theory is necessary. In a broader context, these insights have implications for policy, education, and technology design, particularly in central and eastern European countries, where the adoption of advanced sports technologies is still emerging. Socioeconomic disparities, digital infrastructure gaps, and cultural attitudes toward innovation shape the speed and success of technological integration in these regions. Public policy initiatives that promote digital literacy, ensure equitable access, and address data privacy concerns are essential to overcoming these barriers.

To support the broader uptake of these technologies, coordinated action across public policy, product development, and education is essential. Policymakers should consider subsidizing cost-effective wearables through health programs, promoting interoperability standards, and enforcing transparent data privacy regulations. These measures align with the facilitating conditions outlined in UTAUT and the observability and compatibility dimensions of DOI. Policymakers should prioritize inclusive access and ethical governance by aligning sports technology initiatives with existing frameworks, such as the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the OECD’s AI Principles. These provide clear standards for consent, fairness, and transparency, which are crucial when handling sensitive biometric and AI-derived performance data (Floridi, 2016; OECD, 2024). Governments should build on national digital health strategies, such as Poland’s e-Health Centre roadmap (2023–2027) and the Czech Republic’s digital health and AI strategies (WHO, 2016), to integrate wearable devices and AI performance tools into public health and education systems. In central and eastern Europe, where digital transformation is ongoing, integrating sports technologies via school-based programs and community health initiatives can leverage existing infrastructure and support services. Poland, which has emphasized digital healthcare in its 2025 EU presidency priorities (Birkner, 2019), offers an ideal model for piloting public–private partnerships that fund low-cost fitness wearables coupled with local training programs for educators and healthcare workers. Developers should prioritize usability, affordability, and contextual design by creating intuitive, multilingual interfaces and modular, scalable products that enhance perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness, core elements of TAM. Educators and fitness professionals can support adoption by incorporating technology literacy into training programs and fostering user understanding of real-time performance feedback, thereby increasing perceived value and user confidence.

Ethical concerns related to data privacy and security are increasingly critical. As wearable and AI-driven sports technologies collect vast amounts of sensitive biometric and behavioral data, questions arise about consent, ownership, and cybersecurity. In professional settings, athletes typically have limited control over the use of their data. In contrast, in consumer environments, customers often agree to ambiguous terms of service without fully comprehending the associated risks. These concerns are directly tied to the ‘facilitating conditions’ and ‘trust’ factors present in the UTAUT and extended TAM frameworks (Petrakaki, 2016; Floridi, 2016; van Dijk et al., 2016). Regulators must confront the ethical implications of biometric and AI data collection. These include protecting athletes and general users from unintended surveillance, predictive profiling, or discriminatory outcomes. Policies must clearly define data ownership, restrict the commercial reuse of sensitive data, and ensure meaningful consent, especially for minors and marginalized users. These safeguards are essential not only for public trust but also for responsible AI deployment in line with human-centric design principles (van Dijk et al., 2016; Mittelstadt et al., 2016). Developers and sports organizations must adopt privacy-by-design practices and transparent data governance policies to ensure that technological innovation aligns with ethical and legal standards. By embedding ethics into both policy and technical design, states and institutions can avoid the misuse of biometric intelligence while still enabling innovation. Such actions also increase perceived trust and legitimacy, enhancing the ‘social influence’ and ‘trust’ dimensions of technology acceptance frameworks.

This study’s approach has some identified limitations. First, the evaluation criteria, though theoretically grounded in TAM, DOI, and UTAUT, were applied through qualitative labels (e.g., ‘High,’ ‘Medium,’ and ‘Low’) that introduce a degree of subjectivity. While thresholds were defined, inconsistencies may arise in how these boundaries are interpreted across different technologies and markets. Second, the analysis was based on secondary data (e.g., manufacturer specifications, market pricing, and expert commentary) rather than direct user testing or field studies, which limits the level of detail and real-world validation of the ratings. Moreover, the study treated each technology as a static product, whereas in reality, adoption and usability evolve with software updates, user communities, and changing market trends. Finally, cultural and regional variance in user preferences was not systematically integrated into the comparative evaluation model, which limits its generalizability beyond Western-centric markets.

By identifying the key criteria influencing adoption and drawing a clear line between elite and consumer technologies, this article lays a foundation for more targeted studies and policy interventions supporting the responsible and inclusive spread of sports innovation. Moreover, policy impact assessments are necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of government- and institution-led efforts to promote digital health through sports technologies. Ultimately, bridging the gap between elite innovation and widespread accessibility requires not only better designed technologies but also the development of inclusive, user-informed ecosystems grounded in behavioral theory and cultural awareness.

Future research should investigate how technology adoption varies over time, particularly in relation to sustained use and behavioral change. There is a need for culturally sensitive adaptations of TAM and UTAUT to better reflect adoption patterns in non-Western or digitally underserved contexts. Further investigation is also warranted into sport-specific adoption, particularly in populations with unique performance demands or demographic constraints. Mixed-methods and user-centered studies could evaluate how interface design, pricing models, and feature sets impact both initial adoption and long-term engagement.