Agents in the Alps: The Functions and Impacts of Orchestrator Platforms in the Mountains

Abstract

This article integrates diverse strands of theory and empirical research to combine views on economic complexity and entrepreneurial ecosystems in the context of mountain regions, focusing on the role of orchestrator platforms in shaping innovation and growth. Mountains are often marginal, dispersed, and loosely integrated areas that suffer from scarce opportunities for resource combination and interaction at the basis of the innovative process. The research relies on the case study of the European Alps, combining multiple sources of data—surveys, interviews, and ethnographic studies—to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the mountain ecosystems. Orchestrator platforms emerged as the central actors in the innovative network that overcomes the difficulties and constraints of the mountains. The article provides a comprehensive perspective on how economic complexity can drive development in mountain regions, offering both theoretical and practical contributions to the broader discourse on entrepreneurship and regional growth.

1. Introduction

Notably, research on local dimensions of innovation favours cities or those areas that are not urban but dense enough to concentrate innovative activity in a small space such as clusters or districts. Conversely, little of the research on innovation, entrepreneurship, and growth touches on peripheral, rural, or sparsely populated areas. The scarcity of data and evidence is an obvious obstacle; however, these areas are precisely those most in need of innovation policies and support. One area that is certainly disadvantaged by its very territorial conformity is the mountains.

Mountains are territories with obvious limits in terms of population density, urbanization, concentration of economic activities, and connections. Consequently, the typical ingredients of innovation seem to be precluded for mountains. Mountain economies do not attract talent and lack the necessary variety of resources and knowledge to produce new innovative combinations. This does not detract from the fact that mountain economies have favourable characteristics. They are often border areas, the natural boundary between different economic and cultural areas, conducive to exchange, albeit in contexts of difficult integration. There is no shortage of cases of development of mountainous countries or cutting-edge knowledge production in mountainous areas: for example, the CERN research infrastructure in the Alps on the border between France and Switzerland (Catalano et al., 2021). Economic growth and innovation are therefore possible and necessary in the mountain. This article tries to shift the focus of economic complexity to this undervalued area, looking at the case of the European Alps.

Economic growth and innovation have long been at the centre of debates among economists and regional development scholars (Fritsch & Wyrwich, 2014; Bosma et al., 2018). Traditional models have often approached entrepreneurship as a largely individual and rational decision-making process (Ehrig & Foss, 2022). Recent advances in the study of economic complexity and entrepreneurial ecosystems enrich these traditional views. The concept of economic complexity, which stems from complexity theory, proposes that the productive capabilities of a region are embedded in a network of relationships among actors, technologies, and institutions (Balland et al., 2020; Hidalgo & Hausmann, 2009, 2021). This framework emphasizes that innovation is not simply the result of individual ingenuity but arises from collective interactions and the recombination of existing capabilities.

A body of research on entrepreneurial ecosystems is developing concurrently with these advancements (Audretsch et al., 2017; Brown & Mawson, 2019). To promote innovation and economic growth, entrepreneurial ecosystems are formed when networks of interdependent actors—such as investors, entrepreneurs, academic institutions, and policymakers—interact within a specific geographic area. While this concept has gained popularity, critical voices argue that many entrepreneurial ecosystem (EE) models lack a clear theoretical underpinning and ignore crucial elements that shape entrepreneurial behaviour and regional growth (Coad & Srhoj, 2023).

Examining these problems is especially fruitful in mountainous settings, where areas differ from urban counterparts due to their distinct geographic, cultural, and economic circumstances. Mountains have historically struggled with issues like low population density, remote location, and inadequate infrastructure, all of which have hampered conventional economic growth (Villeneuve et al., 2004; Kohler et al., 2004). However, these difficulties have also sparked creative approaches to local development because entrepreneurs in mountainous areas are compelled to utilize local resources, overcome obstacles, and create new organizational structures through collaboration.

This article aims to integrate these two lines of inquiry—economic complexity and entrepreneurial ecosystems—within the context of mountain environments. By synthesizing critical perspectives on the theoretical gaps in the EE literature with empirical insights from research on entrepreneurial activities in the European Alps, the paper explores how local actors negotiate the complexities of their environment to drive innovation and growth.

The remainder of the paper unfolds as follows. The following section provides a review of economic complexity theory and its application to entrepreneurial ecosystems. Section 3 discusses the methodology of the study, while Section 4 reports on the analysis and the results of the study of the European Alps, with particular emphasis on the challenges and opportunities present in mountain regions, and highlights the role of orchestrator platforms in mediating collaboration. Section 5 builds on the results of the study to put the evidence in the framework that combines economic complexity and entrepreneurial ecosystems to provide implications for the theory and policymakers with prescriptions for regional growth and development. Section 6 concludes with suggestions for future research and final remarks. Ultimately, this article offers policy recommendations and outlines future research directions to foster sustainable development in these unique contexts.

2. Economic Complexity and Entrepreneurial Ecosystems

2.1. Economic Complexity

Economic complexity (EC) is an approach that examines how a society’s productive capabilities emerge from the interconnections among various economic activities. Originally developed to explain why some nations develop more diversified and sophisticated economies than others, economic complexity posits that the diversity and interrelatedness of products and industries are key indicators of growth potential. Today, EC is trying to study regions and cities besides macro areas like countries (Balland & Rigby, 2017; Balland et al., 2020; Di Clemente et al., 2021). In this view, the economy is seen as a “network” where innovations arise from the recombination of existing knowledge, skills, and technologies (Hidalgo et al., 2007; Tacchella et al., 2023).

At its core, economic complexity theory challenges reductionist models that view economic agents as isolated, rational decision-makers. Instead, it suggests that economic output is the emergent property of a complex system composed of interacting elements. These interactions can lead to unforeseen outcomes—innovation that is not simply the sum of individual actions but the product of dynamic processes that include feedback loops, path dependency, and network externalities.

A central concept in economic complexity is that the “knowledge” embedded in a region is not merely codified in formal education or research institutions but is also tacit, culturally transmitted, and embedded in everyday practices (Hidalgo et al., 2018). This tacit knowledge, often transmitted through social interactions, forms the backbone of the region’s innovative capacity. In this light, understanding economic complexity requires not only an analysis of the tangible resources and institutions but also a deep exploration of the social and cultural processes that facilitate knowledge transfer and innovation.

2.2. From Economic Complexity to Entrepreneurial Ecosystems

An entrepreneurial ecosystem (EE) “comprises a set of interdependent actors and factors that are governed in such a way that they enable productive entrepreneurship” (Stam & van de Ven, 2021, p. 809) in a defined regional context (Feldman, 2001a, 2001b). Scholars apply EE to explain “the persistence of high-growth entrepreneurship within regions” (Spigel, 2017, p. 49) and “why some places enjoy persistently higher rates of high-growth entrepreneurship than others” (Spigel & Harrison, 2018, p. 155).

The traditional view of entrepreneurial ecosystems focuses on tangible factors such as access to finance, market infrastructure, human capital, and institutional support (Stam, 2015; Acs et al., 2017; Colombo et al., 2017; Malecki, 2018; Cavallo et al., 2019; Content et al., 2020; Cao & Shi, 2021; Leendertse et al., 2021; Garcia-Lillo et al., 2023). However, as economic complexity theory suggests, the quality and structure of interactions among these elements are equally important. Entrepreneurial ecosystems, therefore, can be seen as the localized manifestation of economic complexity—where the interplay of diverse actors, ideas, and cultural practices creates a fertile ground for innovation.

One of the key criticisms of conventional EE models is that they tend to emphasize static, deterministic factors while neglecting the dynamic, evolving nature of entrepreneurship (Coad & Srhoj, 2023). Economic complexity, on the other hand, highlights that innovation is an emergent process that involves both the “hardware” of technology and institutions, and the “software” of culture. In other words, the transformative potential of an entrepreneurial ecosystem is not solely determined by the availability of resources but also by how these resources are recombined, transmitted, and transformed through social interactions.

Moreover, economic complexity introduces the idea that individuals and organizations act not only independently but also collectively, influencing one another’s behaviour. This perspective is critical for understanding why certain regions, despite having similar economic resources, exhibit vastly different levels of entrepreneurial activity and growth.

2.3. Entrepreneurial Ecosystems in the Mountains

Mountain regions, by their very nature, present a distinct set of challenges and opportunities for economic development. Geographically, they are characterized by rugged terrain, dispersed populations, and fragmented settlements. These physical conditions generate several inherent limitations. First, mountain areas are typically remote and difficult to access; inadequate transportation and communication infrastructure can hinder connectivity between local communities and larger economic centres (Chilla & Heugel, 2018). Second, while cultural and linguistic diversity enriches local heritage and resources (Sohn, 2014; Möller et al., 2018), it can also create significant barriers to effective communication and collaboration (Ferretti et al., 2020). Third, the small size and low population density of mountain regions often mean that local markets are too limited to sustain large-scale economic activities, constraining entrepreneurial development. Lastly, harsh climatic conditions and limited natural resources further restrict the range of economically viable industries.

Despite these challenges, mountain regions are endowed with natural beauty, cultural richness, and strong community ties. They often possess unique forms of local knowledge and traditional practices that, when combined with modern innovation, can generate distinctive economic opportunities. Entrepreneurs in these areas are frequently required to adopt creative and adaptive strategies to overcome structural constraints, transforming limitations into opportunities for niche markets and sustainable development.

Mountain regions thus offer a unique context in which to examine the relationship between economic complexity and entrepreneurial ecosystems. Their fragmented and context-specific nature thus makes them ideal settings for exploring how local interactions and cultural transmission shape economic outcomes. Several dimensions highlight this intersection. In mountain environments, for example, the recombination of local resources and knowledge often occurs through informal networks and community-based interactions. These networks form the backbone of economic complexity, facilitating the transfer of tacit knowledge and the emergence of innovative practices.

Economic complexity highlights relational and collective agency, which is vital in mountain regions where individual actors lack the necessary scale and resources. Entrepreneurs frequently establish cooperatives, associations, or informal alliances to leverage their shared capacities. The distinct challenges of these environments—including isolation, cultural heterogeneity, and environmental constraints—mean mountain economies demand adaptive, locally grounded approaches that integrate traditional wisdom with modern innovation, contrasting with the standardized models predominant in metropolitan areas.

Understanding economic complexity in mountain environments, therefore, requires a multidimensional perspective—one that acknowledges both the structural challenges and the transformative potential of local interactions and cultural processes.

3. Materials and Methods

The context of the research is the mountain region of the European Alps. The Alpine region includes Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovenia, and Switzerland. The Alps are a vast territory with diverse languages and institutions and consist of mountains and rural areas with economic inequalities and underdevelopment (Capello & Cerisola, 2020). The region faces challenges in communication because of socio-demographic and infrastructural difficulties.

This qualitative study investigates the role of ecosystem orchestrators and resource combination in the Alpine region, focusing on higher-education institutions, research and innovation, entrepreneurship, and small-business enterprises. The research builds upon a pilot study on R&I in the Alps projects sponsored by the European Union, the A-Ring project (https://www.alpine-space.eu/project/a-ring/) (accessed on 31 October 2025), which was financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) as part of the Interreg Alpine Space program (www.interregeurope.eu/) (accessed on 31 October 2025). The data collection process was managed within the A-Ring project. The same applies to the selection and refinement of data.

In the first phase, the project researchers conducted desk research to map the platforms and databases related to Research and Innovation (R&I) in the Alpine regions. As a counterfactual exercise, a researcher conducted a “customer journey” study with the aim of verifying the availability and accessibility of information on the internet regarding innovation platforms in the Alpine region, which corroborated the results of the desk research. The research returned 10 trustworthy orchestrator platforms for R&I in the Alps (see

Table 1. Orchestrator platforms.

AI4EU (https://www.ai4europe.eu/ accessed on 1 September 2025) is a platform that connects research and business applications and is a facilitator of knowledge transfer from research to business applications.

Ardia-Net (https://www.alpine-space.eu/project/ardia-net/ accessed on 1 September 2025) aims to develop cross-regional and interdisciplinary cooperation and implement pilot projects for the circular bio and health economies.

Bridge (www.h2020-bridge.eu/ accessed on 1 September 2025) is a networking platform on energy and digitalization and aims to accelerate knowledge transfer for the energy transition.

Cicerone (https://www.ceps.eu/ceps-projects/cicerone-circular-economy-platform-for-european-priorities-strategic-agenda/ accessed on 1 September 2025) is a project bridging research organizations and local stakeholders to create a platform for the Circular Economy.

Entrance (www.entrance-platform.eu/ accessed on 1 September 2025) is a matchmaking platform for innovative transport and mobility tools and services for all transport and mobility modes and all relevant stakeholders to reduce CO2 emissions and increase sustainable mobility.

EU S3 Platform (https://s3platform.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ accessed on 1 September 2025) is a place-based innovation policy concept to support regional innovation through the ‘entrepreneurial discovery process (EDP)’, a bottom-up approach to reveal what a region does best in terms of its scientific and technological endowments

Pantera (https://pantera-platform.eu/ accessed on 1 September 2025) is a project consortium that conducts research for local energy systems.

Policy Learning Platform (www.interregeurope.eu/policylearning/ accessed on 1 September 2025) is an EU platform on the circular economy and sustainable growth, promoting the environment and resource efficiency, together with SMEs’ competitiveness.

The European Cluster Collaboration Platform ECCP (https://clustercollaboration.eu/ accessed on 1 September 2025) aims at resource efficiency and in making the EU’s economy sustainable in the AI, circular economy, and life sciences technologies for healthcare.

EU Cordis (https://cordis.europa.eu/ accessed on 1 September 2025) is the European Commission’s primary source for the results of projects funded by the EU’s framework programmes for research and innovation, from FP1 to Horizon Europe—a public repository containing all project information held by the European Commission.

Source: Author’s elaboration.

).

In the second stage of the project, A-Ring researchers scoured platforms to identify stakeholders in major collaborative projects in the Alpine region. They then launched an online survey in February 2022. The sample achieved saturation once the respondents reflected the proportions of the stakeholders involved in Alpine collaboration, consistent with statistics from the EU with regard to R&I calls for project participants.

In this stage, the data collection involved 114 respondents, consisting of interviews and first-hand accounts in different languages, including French, German, Italian, and Slovenian. The collection occurred in March 2022 under the surveillance and supervision of the A-Ring project, which managed all the required data protection and ethical considerations protocols.

The study guaranteed anonymity and quality control thanks to the comparison of interviewees’ statements with secondary data (Agostinho, 2005; Eisenhardt, 1989). The study triangulates information and enhances external validity by combining primary and secondary data (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Yin, 2009). The goal of the study is to increase openness and communication between corporations, government agencies, civil society, and research institutions.

To map the relationships between Research and Innovation (R&I) stakeholders across the Alpine Region, the research identified barriers to collaboration and supported public authorities (PAs) in enhancing Smart Specialisation Strategies (S3). In the desk research phases, the analysis simulated “customer journey” by a non-expert researcher to identify relevant platforms and databases, and performed ethnographic observations gathered during A-RING events, workshops, and Seed Labs.

4. A Study of the Orchestrator Platforms in the Alps

4.1. Analysis

This research collected empirical evidence to shed light on how entrepreneurial ecosystems function in mountain regions. The study combined data from surveys, interviews, and ethnographic research to reveal several key insights. Entrepreneurs in mountain areas face significant hurdles when it comes to forming effective partnerships. The geographical dispersion and cultural fragmentation of these regions often lead to higher communication costs and cognitive distances between potential collaborators. As a result, local actors may struggle to find partners with complementary skills and resources.

In response to these challenges, orchestrator platforms have emerged as vital mediators of entrepreneurial activity. The Orchestrator plays a central role in preventing the ecosystem collapse that may arise due to dysfunctionalities, lack of alignment, ambiguities, and failures (Jacobides et al., 2024). Ecosystem orchestrators may be digital technologies and platforms to develop new business models (Nambisan, 2017; Nambisan et al., 2019). Platforms based on digital technologies engage and coordinate ecosystems’ actors, e.g., firms (Thomas & Autio, 2020). These platforms serve as neutral hubs that facilitate networking, coordinate collaborative projects, and bridge the gap between disparate actors. By offering structured opportunities for interaction—such as matchmaking events, workshops, and joint projects—these platforms help to overcome the isolation and fragmentation that typically plague mountain regions.

Entrepreneurs in the Alps—like in any other remote area—often adopt highly context-specific strategies. They leverage local knowledge and traditional practices while integrating modern technology and innovative business models. For example, partnerships between local SMEs and research institutions can help to create solutions tailored to the specific environmental and cultural conditions of the region. Regarding the former, the seasonal nature of many mountain economies –where weather and seasonality strongly influence activities like tourism and agriculture—local entrepreneurs may prioritize short-term, risk-averse strategies; however, orchestrator platforms can play a critical role in encouraging a more strategic, long-term perspective by fostering sustained collaboration and resource pooling. Regarding the latter challenge, cultural and institutional fragmentation further complicates entrepreneurial endeavours; differences in regulatory frameworks, languages, and priorities across borders add layers of complexity.

Orchestrator platforms have proved successful in reducing the inherent complexity of the mountain areas and in facilitating connections that spur innovation. In the European Alps, orchestrator platforms, i.e., regional innovation hubs, have successfully facilitated collaboration among stakeholders from different areas, either linguistic or institutional. For example, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) use access platforms to identify potential collaborators. Orchestrator has enhanced knowledge sharing by organizing regular networking events and workshops. These platforms have enabled local entrepreneurs to share experiences and learn from one another, thus reinforcing the community’s collective innovative capacity. In regions that span multiple countries, orchestrator platforms helped in harmonizing administrative processes and fostering cross-cultural understanding, thereby unlocking new avenues for international collaboration. Lastly, these platforms have encouraged the development of niche innovations that are uniquely suited to the mountain environment, focusing on local needs and strengths—such as sustainable tourism, renewable energy, and traditional crafts.

However, orchestrators suffer from several issues hindering cross-border research and innovation (R&I) collaborations. Issues include the existence of uncoordinated funding schemes, a lack of common-language documentation, and an over-reliance on pre-existing partnerships, which tends to limit openness and innovation. Moreover, stakeholders often struggle to navigate the technical jargon of different sectors and to understand the bureaucratic language used in calls for projects and strategic documents. SMEs are showing increasing proactivity in engaging with collaboration opportunities, although they continue to face constraints related to capacity and knowledge. From the perspective of SMEs, Business Support Organizations (BSOs) are not satisfactory in connecting actors within the ecosystem; similarly, SMEs find it hard to collaborate with public authorities because of the complexity of administrative structures.

4.2. Results

This research, conducted in the European Alps, provides compelling evidence of the beneficial impact orchestrator platforms can have in mountain regions. The analysis reveals that local entrepreneurs often tend to collaborate repeatedly with known partners. While this pattern fosters trust on the one side, on the other hand, it can simultaneously lead to a narrowing of innovation possibilities. Orchestrator platforms intervene effectively in breaking these repetitive cycles by introducing entrepreneurs to new partners and fresh ideas.

The transnational nature of many mountain regions makes cross-border collaboration both a necessity and a challenge. Here again, orchestrator platforms proved to be efficient in aligning different administrative and cultural norms across countries, thus reducing the friction often encountered in international projects. Moreover, regions that have successfully established effective orchestrator platforms tend to achieve better outcomes in terms of new venture creation, increased knowledge sharing, and more sustained innovation efforts. Such results are particularly significant in environments where resource constraints necessitate highly efficient collaborations.

Mountain environments are often defined by significant geographical and institutional fragmentation. With settlements scattered across vast and rugged terrains, local entrepreneurs frequently struggle to establish connections with potential partners and access necessary resources. Additionally, institutional differences, ranging from divergent regulatory frameworks to linguistic barriers, further complicate the prospects for collaboration. Within such a complex context, orchestrator platforms emerge as critical institutions capable of coordinating and streamlining interactions among a variety of actors.

These platforms fulfil several essential functions. They facilitate networking by creating structured opportunities, such as matchmaking events, workshops, and online forums, where entrepreneurs, researchers, and policy-makers can meet and explore possibilities for collaboration. Furthermore, they serve as a bridge for cognitive distances, offering common spaces for communication that help to overcome differences in language, culture, and technical jargon, all of which often hinder effective interaction. Orchestrator platforms also contribute to the standardization of processes, particularly important in regions where administrative procedures differ widely; they offer clearer guidelines that simplify collaboration across diverse institutional backgrounds. Finally, by bringing together actors from various sectors, these platforms enable the pooling of knowledge, expertise, and financial resources, thereby enhancing the region’s overall innovative capacity.

5. Discussion

5.1. Toward a Unified Framework

Building on insights from both economic complexity theory and empirical research on entrepreneurial ecosystems in mountain regions, this research envisions a unified framework to foster innovation within these unique contexts. This framework would recognize that innovation stems from the complex interplay of diverse actors and would emphasize the importance of bridging collaborative efforts, especially in mountain regions where social networks and strong community ties play a central role.

Central to this framework are orchestrator platforms, positioned not merely as administrative tools but as active facilitators of collaboration, standardization, and communication across cognitive divides. Policies supporting these ecosystems should be dynamic and adaptive, capable of evolving in response to changes in the local entrepreneurial landscape. Recognizing the emergent and evolving nature of economic complexity, such flexible policy frameworks would better support sustainable growth and innovation in mountain environments.

On the basis of the insights into the interplay between the studies on economic complexity and entrepreneurial ecosystems, the empirical analysis of orchestrator platforms in the Alps sheds light on a unified framework for understanding and fostering innovation in mountain regions. Such a framework would integrate several key elements. First, the comprehension that innovation arises from the complex interplay of diverse actors; in mountain regions, where social networks and community ties are particularly strong, fostering collaborations with actors outside the local community is essential for driving innovation. Second, context-specific strategies emphasize the importance of tailoring interventions to the local context; mountain regions require solutions that are adapted to their unique geographical, cultural, and institutional settings. Third, orchestrator platforms are central agents in mediating collaboration, standardizing processes, and bridging cognitive gaps, facilitating innovation. Fourth and last, policies targeting growth in mountain areas must be ready to evolve in response to changes in the local ecosystem.

5.2. Implications for Policy-Makers

The success of orchestrator platforms in mountain regions offers important lessons for policy-makers. First and foremost, governments and regional development agencies should prioritize the establishment and ongoing support of these platforms within broader innovation strategies. This support may take the form of direct funding, regulatory incentives, or partnerships with academic and research institutions.

Given the particular challenges of mountain environments, policy interventions must be carefully tailored to local needs. Uniform, one-size-fits-all approaches are unlikely to succeed in contexts where geographical, cultural, and institutional factors vary so significantly. Furthermore, orchestrator platforms should not limit themselves to technological and administrative facilitation; they must also focus on fostering trust and building social capital among local actors, which is critical for the long-term sustainability of collaborative networks.

Continuous monitoring and evaluation are also necessary. As orchestrator platforms evolve over time, it is essential that they adapt to changing local conditions and maintain their effectiveness in promoting innovation and economic growth. Looking forward, future research must explore how orchestrator platforms can be more systematically integrated into strategies for regional development in mountain areas. Open questions remain concerning the optimal design of these platforms, their long-term economic impacts, and their capacity to scale up in order to address broader systemic challenges.

Looking ahead, further research is needed to explore how orchestrator platforms can be integrated into broader strategies for regional development in mountain environments. Questions regarding the optimal design of these platforms, their long-term impact on local economies, and their ability to scale up to address systemic challenges remain open for future inquiry.

5.3. Implications for Regional Development

The integration of economic complexity into the analysis of entrepreneurial ecosystems offers several valuable insights. First, policies aimed at stimulating growth should not focus solely on increasing resources or improving infrastructure. Instead, they should also foster environments where diverse actors can interact, exchange ideas, and develop shared cultural narratives that support innovation. For instance, investing in platforms that promote networking, collaborative research, and cross-sector partnerships can help to enhance the tacit knowledge embedded in local communities.

Second, recognizing the importance of cultural transmission and collective agency means that policy interventions must be sensitive to the local context. A one-size-fits-all approach is unlikely to work, especially in regions where cultural and institutional settings are deeply intertwined with historical and social factors. Tailored policies that address the specific barriers to knowledge exchange—such as linguistic diversity, geographical isolation, and institutional fragmentation—are essential for unlocking the innovative potential of a region.

Finally, the dynamic and emergent nature of economic complexity suggests that policy should be adaptable and responsive. As entrepreneurial ecosystems evolve, the mechanisms for knowledge transfer and collective action may change, requiring ongoing assessment and recalibration of policy measures. In this sense, policies should be designed not as static blueprints but as flexible frameworks that can accommodate the uncertainties and nonlinearities inherent in complex economic systems.

5.4. Policy Recommendations

Based on the synthesis of theoretical insights and empirical findings discussed above, several policy recommendations emerge for fostering economic complexity and entrepreneurial ecosystems in mountain environments:

To foster economic development in mountain areas, it is crucial to invest in orchestrator platforms. Regional and national governments should allocate funding and resources to the creation and maintenance of these platforms, which play a crucial role in facilitating networking, standardizing administrative processes and bridging knowledge gaps between local actors. It is essential that these platforms are neutrally designed, easily accessible, and fully adapted to the specific needs of mountain communities.

In parallel, it is important to promote cultural and educational programmes that enhance the preservation and transmission of local knowledge. Educational initiatives such as incubators for local entrepreneurship, storytelling workshops and community-led innovation challenges can play a crucial role in strengthening entrepreneurial identities, encouraging the transmission of tacit knowledge and collective wisdom.

Another area of intervention concerns the strengthening of cross-border cooperation. In mountain regions that extend beyond national borders, regulatory frameworks and administrative procedures need to be harmonized. The creation of cross-border cooperation agreements and joint financing schemes can help reduce institutional fragmentation and facilitate international collaborations.

Actions need to be carefully tailored to the specific needs of each region. The table below summarizes several policy prescriptions that emerged from the interaction with the actors of the mountain entrepreneurial ecosystem and describes lines of action (see

Table 2. Policy prescriptions for entrepreneurial ecosystems in the mountains.

Policy	Action
Invest in Orchestrator Platforms	Regional and national governments should establish orchestrator platforms that facilitate networking, standardize administrative processes, and bridge cognitive gaps among local actors
Foster Cultural and Educational Programs	Educational initiatives—such as local entrepreneurship incubators, workshops, and community-led innovation challenges—to encourage the transmission and exchange of knowledge
Enhance Cross-Border Cooperation	Establish cross-border cooperation agreements and joint funding schemes to reduce institutional fragmentation and facilitate international collaboration.
Support Context-Specific Interventions	Governments should work with local stakeholders to develop strategies that reflect the specific economic, cultural, and environmental conditions of mountain areas.
Encourage Long-Term, Strategic Partnerships	Policy measures that incentivize sustained partnerships and collaboration among local SMEs, research institutions, and public authorities, such as tax benefits, grant programs, or technical assistance, can support the development of entrepreneurial ecosystems
Monitor and Evaluate Policy Impact	Establish mechanisms for regular feedback from local communities and stakeholders to help policy-makers adjust strategies in real time

Source: Author’s elaboration.

).

The integration of economic complexity theory with that of entrepreneurial ecosystems in mountain regions has important implications for local economic transformation. Orchestrating platforms must promote the diversification of the economy and drive the unique skills and cultural heritage of mountain communities beyond traditional sectors. This diversification process is key to increasing the resilience of local economies in the face of external shocks and global disruptions.

A further benefit relates to sustainable development. The emphasis on localised and contextualised innovation aligns perfectly with the principles of sustainability. Mountain regions, often subject to environmental constraints, can thus benefit from strategies that combine economic growth and ecological protection. Policies that recognise and value the collective agency of local actors can also promote community empowerment. This bottom-up approach contrasts with externally imposed development models, which are often ill-suited to respond to local realities.

Finally, the success of the orchestrator platforms in mountain regions suggests that new models of collaboration, capable of integrating formal institutional support with informal community networks, can offer valuable insights to address the challenges of other rural or peripheral areas as well.

6. Conclusions

6.1. Future Research Directions

Although significant progress has been made in understanding the dynamics of economic complexity and entrepreneurial ecosystems in mountain contexts, many areas for future research remain to be explored. A deeper analysis is needed to expand our understanding of the mechanisms that transmit tacit knowledge and culture within mountain areas. A second research direction concerns the realization of comparative studies between different mountain regions, and also between mountain and non-mountain areas. This approach would make it possible to isolate the specific factors that stimulate innovation in high-altitude contexts and identify good practices that can be transferred to other environments.

Given the dynamic nature of entrepreneurial ecosystems, it would also be valuable to undertake longitudinal studies that trace the evolution of networks, narratives and collaborative practices over time, shedding light on the long-term effects of orchestrator platforms and economic policy. In addition to qualitative approaches, it is suggested to integrate quantitative analyses based on network theory and complexity metrics. Such tools would make it possible to quantify the impact of relational agency and knowledge recombination on economic outcomes, providing a sound basis for the formulation of more effective policies.

Qualitative studies like ethnographic and longitudinal analyses can offer richer insights into the influence of such processes on entrepreneurial behaviour and economic performance; however, quantitative methods are best suited to provide reliable measures of the impact of such mechanisms. Given the multiplicity of actors at play and the variety of possible configurations of local ecosystems in an environment as peculiar and complex as mountains, economic complexity has the greatest potential to provide answers to this task.

Another promising area of research concerns the integration of digital technologies. The use of digital platforms, virtual networking tools, and online communities could facilitate knowledge transfer and collaboration in mountain regions, overcoming geographical and cultural barriers.

Finally, the impact of environmental and climatic factors on mountain entrepreneurship should be further analyzed. Given the vulnerability of these areas to climate change, it is crucial to understand how local actors adapt and innovate in the face of such challenges in order to design economic policies capable of ensuring long-term resilience.

6.2. Concluding Remarks

The convergence of economic complexity theory and entrepreneurial ecosystem research provides a powerful framework for understanding the challenges and opportunities in mountain environments. This article has highlighted how the dynamic interplay of collaborative networks drives innovation in regions traditionally considered peripheral. The research put in focus the unique context of mountain regions characterized by isolation, cultural diversity, and institutional fragmentation; the discussion underscores the need for tailored, context-specific strategies that go beyond traditional resource-based models of economic growth.

Orchestrator platforms emerge as a key solution for overcoming the barriers inherent in mountain environments. They serve not only as administrative and networking hubs but also as vital agents of cultural transmission and collective agency. These platforms promote effective collaboration, standard processes, and a shared vision for innovation; therefore, orchestrator platforms can unlock the latent potential of mountain regions, transforming challenges into opportunities for sustainable development.

Policy-makers, researchers, and practitioners are called upon to reframe their approach to regional development by embracing the insights of economic complexity and by recognizing the central role of narratives and collective action in shaping entrepreneurial ecosystems. As this article has argued, understanding the “why” of entrepreneurship in mountain environments requires a nuanced, holistic perspective that integrates the tangible and intangible elements of innovation.

In moving forward, the focus should be on creating adaptive, resilient ecosystems that can respond to both internal dynamics and external pressures. This entails not only investing in infrastructure and financial resources but also nurturing the social and cultural foundations that underpin economic growth. With a concerted effort to build bridges across geographical, cultural, and institutional divides, mountain regions can become thriving centres of innovation that contribute to a more diversified, sustainable, and inclusive economic future.

Ultimately, the synthesis of theoretical insights and empirical evidence presented here offers a roadmap for future research and policy initiatives. By acknowledging the complexity of economic interactions and the importance of locally embedded knowledge, stakeholders can work together to foster entrepreneurial ecosystems that are both robust and flexible. This integrated approach promises not only to enhance the economic performance of mountain regions but also to serve as a model for other areas facing similar challenges.

As the world continues to grapple with rapid technological changes, environmental uncertainties, and shifting economic paradigms, the lessons learned from mountain entrepreneurship and economic complexity will prove invaluable. They remind us that growth is not a linear process determined solely by available resources; rather, it is an emergent phenomenon born of dynamic interactions, cultural narratives, and the collective will to innovate. With the right mix of policy support, collaborative frameworks, and adaptive strategies, even the most challenging environments can become incubators of sustainable economic transformation.