Phytoremediation: The Sustainable Strategy for Improving Indoor and Outdoor Air Quality
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Air Pollutants
2.1. Particulate Matter (PM)
2.2. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
2.3. Inorganic Air Pollutants (IAC)
2.4. Others
3. Air Pollution and Human Diseases
4. Mechanisms of Phytoremediation
4.1. Phytoextraction (Phytoaccumulation)
4.2. Phytostabilization (Phytoimmobilization)
4.3. Phytovolatilization
4.4. Phytodegradation (Phytotransformation)
4.5. Phytofiltration
5. Phytoremediation Mechanisms of Main Air Pollutants
5.1. Removal of Gaseous Pollutants
5.2. Removal of Aerosol Pollutants (Prticulate Matter)
6. Applications of the Phytoremediation for Improving Air Quality
6.1. Indoor Air Quality
6.2. Outdoor Air Quality
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Air Pollutants | Human Diseases | Observations/Health Impacts | References |
---|---|---|---|
VOCs | Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases | The emergency hospital visits for chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases were positively linked to VOCs derived from household products, architectural paints, and gasoline emission showing excess risk (ER%) of 2.1%, 95% confidence interval (CI%): 0.9% to 3.4%; 1.5%, 95% CI: 0.2% to 2.9%; and 1.5%, 95% CI: 0.2% to 2.8%, respectively. | [26] |
BTEX | Lung diseases | Exposure to BTEX may increase the risk of pulmonary diseases owing to the alteration of the gas-liquid interface properties of pulmonary surfactants. | [27] |
SO2, O3, NO2, PM10, and PM2.5 | Respiratory diseases | The exposure to SO2 and NO2 were significantly linked to respiratory disease-related hospitalization. Females and the younger group were more vulnerable to air pollution than males and the older group. | [28] |
SO2 and NO2 | Respiratory diseases | An increment of 10 μg/m3 in the SO2 concentration led to respiratory disease-related mortality of 1.9% and 2.9% in the time-series and the case-crossover analyses in single pollutant models, respectively. | [29] |
SO2, O3, and NO2 | Asthmatic diseases | The yearly average SO2 concentration in the studied location was 8.62 times higher than the WHO guideline. Accordingly, the pollutants were closely linked to the high hospitalization rate by acute respiratory diseases and asthmatic symptoms. | [30] |
SO2, NOx, and PM2.5 | Chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease | Compared to exposure to the first quartile of SO2, NO2, and PM2.5, exposure to the fourth quartile exhibited an increased risk of developing CKD and ESRD at 1.46-fold and 1.32-fold, 1.39-fold and 1.70-fold, and 1.74-fold and 1.69-fold, respectively. | [31] |
PM2.5 | Lung fibrosis | PM2.5 could be internalized into cells and activate the NLRP3 inflammasome through multiple endocytosis processes involving phagocytosis and pinocytosis, leading to lung fibrosis. | [34] |
PM2.5 | Respiratory diseases related inflammation | Respiratory disease-related inflammation might be induced by PM2.5 exposure via activation of TLR4/NF-kB/COX signaling | [35] |
PM2.5 | Cardiovascular diseases | Based on an average concentration of 13.5 μg/m3 of PM2.5, an increase of 10 μg/m3 led to a 24% increase in cardiovascular diseases incidence and 76% increase in death by cardiovascular diseases. | [37] |
PM10, PM2.5, and O3 | Dry eye diseases | Increased O3 and PM2.5 results in aggravated ocular discomfort. Increased PM10 irritated tear film stability in the DED group. | [38] |
PM2.5, and O3 | Renal dysfunction | After 1-year and 3-year exposure to PM2.5 and O3, 6.5% and 12.7% of participants showed a reduced eGFR level and elevated UACR level, respectively. These results indicated impaired renal function. | [39] |
PM2.5 | Endocrine, digestive, urological, and dermatological diseases | A 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 exhibited a significant connection with a 0.65%, 0.59%, 0.43%, and 0.36% increase in hospital visits for DERM, ENDO, DIGE, and UROL, respectively. | [40] |
PM2.5 | Pediatric rheumatic diseases | Exposure to PM2.5 during 11–40 weeks of pregnancy and 1–14 weeks after birth showed a significant association with the incidence of PRDs. | [41] |
PM10 and PM2.5 | COVID-19 | Air quality index and PM2.5 and PM1.0 concentration exhibited a significant association with the risk of COVID-19. | [42] |
PM10 and PM2.5 | COVID-19 | Italian northern regions showing an excess of PM10 and PM2.5 levels from legislative standards (50 μg/m3) have been seriously affected by COVID-19. | [43] |
Location | Pollutants | Observations/Suggested Measures | References |
---|---|---|---|
Chamaedorea elegans | Formaldehyde | Potted C. elegans removed 65–100% of formaldehyde in the chamber. The removal capacity depends on the inlet concentration, and the light condition was more efficient than the dark condition. | [69] |
Opuntia microdasy | BTEX | O. microdays removed BTEX in the chambers with the removal rates 1.35, 1.18, 0.54, and 1.64 mg/m2 d1, respectively. For complete removing 2.5 ppm of BTEX in a 30 m3 room, ten pots of O. microdasys were suggested. | [70] |
Chlorophytum comosum L. | PM | C. comosum accumulated indoor PM10, PM2.5, and PM0.2 in their waxes. The accumulation occurred more in wax than on the surface to facilitate the attachment tightly to leaves and phytostabilize effectively. The accumulation amount depends on the kind of activity taking place in the room. | [71] |
Aloe vera (Haw.) Ber, Tradescantia zebrina Bosse, and Vigna radiata (Linn.) Wilczek (V. radiata) | Formaldehyde | Adding microbes to hydro-cultured plants system improved the formaldehyde removal efficiency by 6.7–90.5%. While the remediation process in plant-only systems occurred through redox and enzymatic reactions, that in the plant-microbe systems occurred mainly via microbial degradation mechanisms. | [72] |
Ophiopogon japonicus | Phenol and PM | A hydroponic system composed of Ophiopogon japonicus and phenol-degrading bacteria, Staphylococus epidermis and Pseudomonas spp., was combined with an air compressor that sucks air and injected it into the bioreactors to circulate in the plant pots. This system showed a high phenol-degrading capacity of about 1000 g/L daily. Additionally, this system absorbed PM and produced oxygen, improving air quality. | [73] |
Chlorophytum comosum and Sansevieria trifasciata | CO2 | The biofilter containing a combination of C. comosum and S. trifasciata removed 3.9–4.7 mg/m3 toluene within 2–3 h, showing low CO2 emission under both light and dark conditions. | [75] |
Sansevieria trifasciata and Chlorophytum comosum | PM2.5, VOCs, and CO2 | A biofilter composed of a CAM and C3 plants combination minimized the total CO2 emission accompanying high PM2.5 and COCs removal efficiency, compared to a biofilter composed of individual plant species. | [76] |
Ficus lyrate, Chlorophytum orchidastrum, Nephrolepis cordifolia duffii, Nephropelis exaltata bostoniensis, Nematanthus glabra, Schefflera amate, Schefflera arboricola | PMs | Plants having fibrous roots revealed higher removal efficiency than those having tap roots, and fern species presented the highest single-pass removal efficiencies (PM03–0.5 = 45.78% and PM5–10 = 92.46%). | [78] |
Epipremnum aureum | PM10, PM2.5, and VOCs | A botanical biofilter comprising horizontally grown plants in growth media, an evaporative medium, and a mechanical ventilation system showed PM2.5, PM10, and VOCs removal efficiencies of 54.5%, 65.42%, and 46%, respectively. | [79] |
Schefflera arboricola | VOCs | An air handling unit connected to a biowall removed 3826.4 ppbv of isobutylene, recording an average of 20% single-pass efficiency. | [80] |
Schefflera arboricola and Chlorophytum comosum ‘variegatum’ | PM10, PM2.5, and VOCs | A fan located at a central opening on the green wall’s back space can drive air through the medium-plant-roots mix, then onward to the plant’s canopy. This enabled more air to pass through the green wall substrate with greater remedy efficacy. Additionally, the wet plant wall modules led to much more air through the modules. | [81] |
Aptenia cordifolia, Carpobrotus edulis, Peperomia magnoliiaefolia, and Kalanchoe blossfeldiana | 1 n.g. | The organic-rich growing medium of vermicompost along with perlite and cocopeat was suggested as an optimal medium for designing a sustainable internal green wall, especially when this is combined with Aptenia cordifolia. | [82] |
Nephrolepis exaltata bostoniensis | PM, benzene, and VOCs | Adding granular activated carbon (GAC) into the coconut husk-based substrates, improved the VOCs and benzene deposition rate, while PM removal rate was reduced. | [83] |
Asplenium antiquum, Philodendron scandens, Philodendron scandens ‘Brazil’, and Syngonium podophyllum. | Methyl ethyl ketone | The plant wall with a soil-less growing medium containing activated carbon was combined with a forced-air system, which draws the polluted air through the biowall and reduced the VOCs significantly, recording a 57% single-pass removal efficiency. | [84] |
Ficus elastica and Schefflera arboricola “Gold Capella” | VOCs | Compared to clean-air exposed and soil-grown plants, VOC-exposed and biowall-grown plants exhibited an enriched level of Hyphomicrobium, a degrader of halogenated and aromatic compounds, surrounding the roots area. | [85] |
Epipremnum pinnatum cv. Aureum and Davallia fejeensis Hook | VOCs | VOCs formed the microbial communities, enriching the VOCs utilizing bacteria species in the irrigation water, where most of the VOC degradation in the biowall occurs. | [86] |
Location | Pollutants | Observations/Suggested Measures | References |
---|---|---|---|
Tabriz, Iran | O3, SO2, NO2, CO, PM2.5 | In 2015, shrubs and trees removed 238.4 t of air contaminants, and an increase of the elimination up to 814.46 t over the next 20 years is expected if appropriate, feasible urban forest management is performed. | [87] |
North Katowice, Poland | PM | Among vines, shrubs, and coniferous trees, Parthenocissus quiquefolia and Betula pendula ‘Youngii’ accumulated the highest amounts of PM in their wax. The accumulated PM contained carbon, oxygen, silicon, iron, and heavy metals. | [88] |
Fifteen different urbanized areas in Sydney, Australia | PM | The leaf traits were not the specific factor to determine the deposition capacities of plants. Among investigated plants, N. glabra, C. comosum variegatum, P. Xanadu, and S. wallisii entrapped the most amount of PM. | [89] |
Surabaya town, Indonesia | Lead (Pb) | Wedelia trilobata and Syzigium olein are grown on the main roads and exposed to heavy metals. Wedelia trilobata, having wider leaves, absorbed more heavy metals than Syzigium oleina showing a smaller leaf surface area. | [90] |
Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China | PM2.5 | Compared to broadleaved plant species, needle-leaved coniferous species accumulated higher amounts of PM2.5. The PM2.5 removal capacity of broadleaved species was correlated to the number of grooves and trichomes. | [91] |
Hanoi, Vietnam | PM | Leaves with a lower area, hydrophilic traits, and a high abaxial stomatal density entrapped more PM; accordingly, Muntingia calabura showed the highest PM removal capacity among 49 screened plant species. | [92] |
Birmingham New Street railway, United Kingdom | PM1, PM2.5, and PM10 | Hebe albicans Cockayne, Hebe x youngii Metcalf, Buxus sempervirens L., and Thymus vulgaris L., which have small leaves, revealed the highest PM removal capacity. Leaves with adaxial surfaces showed higher PM densities compared to those with abaxial surfaces. | [93] |
Kunming City, Southwest China | PM | Platanus acerifolia and Magnolia grandiflora showed the highest PM removal among deciduous and evergreen trees, respectively. PM entrap capacity depends not only on the leaf characteristics, but also on the pollution grade; Loropetalum chinense, Osmanthus fragrans, and Cinnamomum japonicum exhibited significant accumulation of PM in traffic and university campus areas, whereas showing moderate removal efficacy in an industrial area. | [94] |
Trivandrum City, Kerala, India | Air Pollution Tolerance Indices (APTI) | Based on APTI, plants showing the highest APTI, Agave americana, Anacardium occidentale, Cassia fistula, Cassia roxburghii, Mangifera indica, and Saraca asoca, were suggested for near areas presenting heavy vehicular air pollution, and plants showing the next highest APTI for greenbelts. | [95] |
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Lee, H.; Jun, Z.; Zahra, Z. Phytoremediation: The Sustainable Strategy for Improving Indoor and Outdoor Air Quality. Environments 2021, 8, 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments8110118
Lee H, Jun Z, Zahra Z. Phytoremediation: The Sustainable Strategy for Improving Indoor and Outdoor Air Quality. Environments. 2021; 8(11):118. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments8110118
Chicago/Turabian StyleLee, Heayyean, Ziwoo Jun, and Zahra Zahra. 2021. "Phytoremediation: The Sustainable Strategy for Improving Indoor and Outdoor Air Quality" Environments 8, no. 11: 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments8110118