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Article

Assessment of Health Risks Associated with PM10 and PM2.5 Air Pollution in the City of Zvolen and Comparison with Selected Cities in the Slovak Republic

by
Patrick Ivan
1,*,
Marián Schwarz
1 and
Miriama Mikušová
2
1
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Technical University in Zvolen, T. G. Masaryka 24, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia
2
UNESCO Department, Faculty of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Technical University in Zvolen, T. G. Masaryka 24, 960 01 Zvolen, Slovakia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Environments 2025, 12(7), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12070212
Submission received: 22 May 2025 / Revised: 13 June 2025 / Accepted: 16 June 2025 / Published: 20 June 2025
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Abstract

:
Air pollution is one of the most serious environmental threats, with particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5 representing its most harmful components, significantly affecting public health. These particles are primarily generated by transport, industry, residential heating, and agriculture, and are associated with increased incidence of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, asthma attacks, and heart attacks, as well as chronic illnesses and premature mortality. The most vulnerable groups include children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing health conditions. This study focuses on the analysis of health risks associated with PM10 and PM2.5 air pollution in the city of Zvolen, which serves as a representative case due to its urban structure, traffic load, and industrial activity. The aim is to assess the current state of air quality, identify the main sources of pollution, and evaluate the health impacts of particulate matter on the local population. The results will be compared with selected Slovak cities—Banská Bystrica and Ružomberok—to understand regional differences in exposure and its health consequences. The results revealed consistently elevated concentrations of particulate matter (PM) across all analyzed cities, frequently exceeding the guideline values recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), although remaining below the thresholds set by current national legislation. The lowest average concentrations were recorded in the city of Zvolen (PM10: 20 μg/m3; PM2.5: 15 μg/m3). These lower values may be attributed to the location of the reference monitoring station operated by the Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMÚ), situated on J. Alexy Street in the southern part of the city—south of Zvolen’s primary industrial emitter, Kronospan. Due to predominantly southerly wind patterns, PM particles are transported northward, potentially leading to higher pollution loads in the northern areas of the city, which are currently not being monitored. We analyzed trends in PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations and their relationship with hospitalization data for respiratory diseases. The results indicate a clear correlation between the concentration of suspended particulate matter and the number of hospital admissions due to respiratory illnesses. Our findings thus confirm the significant adverse effects of particulate air pollution on population health and highlight the urgent need for systematic monitoring and effective measures to reduce emissions, particularly in urban areas.

1. Introduction

Air pollution is among the most pressing environmental issues today. It consists of a complex mixture of gaseous and solid substances suspended in the atmosphere, directly affecting human health. Among its most harmful components are particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5 [1].
These particles primarily originate from the combustion of fossil fuels in transport and industry, as well as from household heating and agricultural activities. However, it is important to acknowledge that particulate matter also originates from natural dust sources. Although the relative contribution of PM from natural origins tends to be lower in large urban areas, it remains a relevant component of overall particulate pollution. Its concentration varies depending on the season, meteorological conditions, and local pollution levels. Numerous scientific studies confirm that elevated levels of these particles are closely associated with the development and exacerbation of serious diseases [2].
The health effects of PM10 and PM2.5 are profound. Short-term exposure can impair breathing, trigger asthma attacks, and increase the risk of heart attacks. Long-term exposure is linked to chronic lung and cardiovascular diseases, as well as premature death. Particularly at risk are children, the elderly, and people with pre-existing health conditions [3]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has repeatedly emphasized the need to monitor and reduce these particles in the air.
The present study aims to assess the health risks of air pollution by PM10 and PM2.5 in the city of Zvolen. As a regional center, Zvolen provides a compelling case due to its urbanization, traffic density, industrial activity, and specific climatic conditions. The article seeks to analyze the current state of air quality in the city, identify key sources of pollution, and evaluate the potential health impacts of particulate matter on the local population. Additionally, the results will be compared with other selected Slovak cities to better understand regional differences in PM pollution and its health implications.
Air quality affects every individual, and this analysis aims to expand expert knowledge in the field of particulate pollution while engaging the broader public in discussions about creating healthier urban environments.

2. Materials and Methods

The aim of this study was to evaluate the health risks associated with air pollution by particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5 in the city of Zvolen and compare them with selected Slovak cities—specifically Banská Bystrica and Ružomberok. A combination of data sources was used, including environmental monitoring, health statistics, and field-based measurements.
Data on population health, particularly hospital admissions due to respiratory diseases, were obtained from the National Health Information Centre (NCZI). The dataset included diagnoses such as pneumonia, bronchitis, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, and acute upper respiratory tract infections at multiple or unspecified sites. Emphasis was placed on hospitalizations of Zvolen residents over the past five years to identify possible trends in disease incidence.
Data on concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 were sourced from the Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMÚ), which operates permanent air quality monitoring stations in Zvolen, Banská Bystrica, and Ružomberok. Monthly and annual average concentrations of both particle types were analyzed for the period 2013–2022 to evaluate pollution trends.
To supplement and verify official data, additional field measurements were conducted in various parts of Zvolen between October 2024 and March 2025 to capture seasonal differences between heating and non-heating periods. Air quality was monitored using the RS-MS111-N01-1 device from Shandong Renke Control Technology, based in Jinan, China specifically designed for comprehensive air pollution assessment. This instrument features a large LCD and user-friendly controls, and detects multiple air quality indicators, including PM10, PM2.5, and other pollutants. It uses high-quality electrochemical sensors and supports Modbus RTU protocol communication, ensuring reliable data transmission over long distances.
Measurements were conducted across different urban settings—in central and residential areas, near major traffic routes, and on the city’s outskirts. Locations were selected to ensure data representativeness for the entire urban area. Results from these field measurements were then compared to SHMÚ data for the same time period to assess consistency and detect local variations or deviations.
Observed deviations may be influenced by the presence of industrial zones, particularly the Kronospan company, while the SHMÚ station is located in the southern part of Zvolen. Under prevailing southern wind conditions, particulate matter disperses from industrial areas to other parts of the city, potentially affecting air quality even in locations distant from the direct pollution source. Furthermore, the relationship between PM concentrations and respiratory hospitalizations was analyzed in both temporal and spatial contexts.
The gathered data were used to predict future PM concentration trends in Zvolen and to estimate hospital admission trends for respiratory diseases. The methodology focused on identifying correlations between PM10/PM2.5 concentrations and hospital admissions for the period 2014–2023, serving as the basis for projections through 2030. Input data on particulate matter concentrations were obtained from SHMÚ, while hospitalization statistics were sourced from NCZI. These data were processed and visualized using the R programming environment, employing functions such as predict(), lm(), and ggplot(). Given the nature of the data, a linear regression model was selected to analyze the relationship between hospital admissions and PM concentrations. The model was validated through favorable R2 values, low p-values, and high F-statistics, supporting its reliability in predicting hospitalization trends for the period 2024–2030.
This multidisciplinary approach enabled a comprehensive assessment of the impact of particulate matter on public health in Zvolen and provided a foundation for policy recommendations aimed at improving air quality and protecting population health.

3. Air Pollution by PM10 and PM2.5 in the City of Zvolen

The city of Zvolen, with approximately 40,000 inhabitants, was selected as the focal area for air pollution monitoring. Zvolen is located in the geomorphological region of the Zvolen Basin, which forms part of the Slovak Central Mountains. The city lies within the floodplain and terrace formations of the Hron River. The local terrain is mostly flat to gently undulating, with minimal erosive dissection. These morphological features, together with frequent temperature inversions typical of basins, contribute to the accumulation of air pollutants—especially during winter months under adverse meteorological conditions [4].
As the largest city in the central Pohronie region, Zvolen holds a strategic transportation position at the intersection of major national roads (R1, R2, R3) and railway corridors. Moreover, the city lies in close proximity to the international airport in Sliač [5].
Zvolen serves as an important industrial and transportation hub in the central Slovak Republic. Several significant industrial facilities operate within the city, including Zvolenská teplárenská, a.s. (heat and electricity production), Kronospan, s.r.o. (particle board manufacturing), and Bučina Zvolen, a.s. (wood processing). These enterprises are major emission sources of air pollutants, including particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [6].
One of the most pressing air quality issues in Zvolen concerns elevated concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5. These particles are generated by the combustion of fossil fuels in industry, residential heating, and road traffic. High PM concentrations frequently exceed legal air quality limits, leading to overall deterioration of urban air quality. In addition to their direct health effects, particulate matter reduces visibility and contributes to changes in local climatic conditions in urban environments [7].
The graph (Figure 1) illustrates the average annual concentrations of particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5 in Zvolen (J. Alexy Street—SHMÚ monitoring station) over the period from 2014 to 2023. This graph was created using data provided by SHMÚ [8].
The trend in concentrations indicates that both PM10 and PM2.5 levels remained relatively stable during the monitored period, without significant long-term fluctuations. PM10 concentrations ranged approximately between 17 and 22 µg/m3, while PM2.5 values fluctuated between 12 and 17 µg/m3 [8]. Although slight variations were observed in certain years (e.g., increased concentrations in 2018, 2019, and 2021), overall, the occurrence of particulate matter can be characterized as relatively stable over the past decade. Minor declines, such as the one in 2020, can likely be attributed to specific events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, which curtailed traffic and industrial activities.
The stability in concentrations can be explained by a combination of factors—on one hand, modest improvements in transport and industrial technologies, and on the other hand, persistent pollution sources and local geomorphological conditions in the Zvolen Basin, which allow for the accumulation of particulate matter, particularly under unfavorable dispersion conditions.
A comprehensive evaluation of the data reveals that during the analyzed ten-year period, PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations in Zvolen exhibited a consistent trend, with no marked deterioration or significant improvement in air quality. In individual years, slight exceedances of the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended long-term exposure thresholds, established in 2021 (15 µg/m3 for PM10 and 5 µg/m3 for PM2.5), were recorded.
Nevertheless, the concentrations of these fine particulate fractions did not surpass the legally binding limit values defined by Decree No. 250/2023 Coll. of the Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic, which sets the permissible annual mean for PM10 at 40 µg/m3 and for PM2.5 at 20 µg/m3 [9].
These findings underscore the fact that, although PM concentrations in the observed region meet current legislative requirements, the continued exceedance of the stricter WHO guidelines poses a potential health risk to the population. The WHO recommendations reflect the latest epidemiological evidence regarding the adverse effects of long-term exposure to airborne particulates, including increased risks of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, highlighting the need for further reductions in PM concentrations beyond existing regulatory standards.
Between October 2024 and March 2025, we conducted measurements of suspended particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations at four locations across the city of Zvolen: the city center (M. R. Štefánik Street), the campus of the Technical University in Zvolen (TUZVO), the Sekier district (in the vicinity of the Kronospan industrial facility), and the Zlatý Potok neighborhood (M. Rázus Street). Particulate pollutant concentrations were measured using the RS-MS111-N01-1 sensor developed by Shandong Renke Control Technology (Jinan, China). The device is intended for comprehensive air quality monitoring and allows for accurate, continuous measurement of particulate matter levels in the environment.
The obtained data were compared with the results from the reference monitoring station of the Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMÚ) located on J. Alexy Street in the southern part of the city. The comparison was conducted for the same time period, effectively eliminating seasonal effects and allowing for the evaluation of the influence of local pollution sources and prevailing wind patterns.
The results (Figure 2) reveal significant spatial variability in PM concentrations. The highest concentrations of both PM10 (40 µg/m3) and PM2.5 (32 µg/m3) were recorded at the TUZVO campus, followed by the Zlatý Potok, Sekier, and city center locations. In contrast, the SHMÚ reference station on J. Alexy Street reported substantially lower concentrations (PM10: 30 µg/m3; PM2.5: 26 µg/m3). This discrepancy can largely be attributed to meteorological conditions, as southern to southeastern airflow predominated during the monitoring period, significantly affecting the dispersion of emissions from the main industrial source in the area.
Comparison of measured PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations at four locations in Zvolen with the SHMÚ monitoring station. PM10 values are depicted in blue and PM2.5 values in red. PM10 data provided by SHMÚ are shown in green, while PM2.5 data from SHMÚ are displayed in yellow. When interpreting these findings, it is essential to consider the location of the most significant air pollution source in Zvolen—the Kronospan industrial facility, situated approximately 500 m north of the city center. The prevailing southern to southeastern winds facilitate the transport of emissions in a northward direction, resulting in higher exposure in northern parts of the city, such as the university area and Zlatý Potok, compared to the city center. Conversely, the SHMÚ station, located further south, is minimally affected by these emissions, which is reflected in the lower concentrations recorded.
These results highlight the need for a comprehensive assessment of air quality throughout the entire urban area of Zvolen. While the SHMÚ reference station provides valuable data, its southern location does not adequately capture the impact of major pollution sources situated farther north.

4. Comparison of PM10 and PM2.5 Air Pollution with the Cities of Banská Bystrica and Ružomberok

4.1. Banská Bystrica—PM10 and PM2.5

Banská Bystrica is a metropolis of the central Slovak Republic and the administrative center of the Banská Bystrica Region. With a population of approximately 73,500, it is the sixth-largest city in the country. The city is located at the confluence of the Hron and Bystrica Rivers, in the northern part of the Zvolen Basin, and is surrounded by the Starohorské vrchy, Kremnické vrchy, and Poľana mountain ranges [10]. Major transport corridors pass through the city, particularly the European route E77 from the north (Ružomberok) to the south (Zvolen), the R1 expressway connecting the western and central Slovak Republic, and national roads I/59, I/14, I/69, and I/66, all of which significantly influence traffic intensity in the area [11].
Traffic burden, urban development, and ongoing issues in areas heavily affected by individual household heating—especially during the winter months, when the burning of solid fuels in local heating systems increases—represent major sources of pollutant emissions into the air [11]. Unfavorable dispersion conditions, typical for basin topography, further hinder the natural dispersal of pollutants and contribute to their accumulation in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Long-term exposure to such particulate matter has been linked to adverse impacts on the population’s quality of life [4]. For these reasons, Banská Bystrica was selected for comparison with Zvolen to evaluate regional differences in air quality and associated health risks.
Due to its geographic location in a relatively enclosed basin and its high-volume road traffic, Banská Bystrica is particularly vulnerable to the accumulation of air pollutants—especially during winter periods under poor dispersion conditions. Elevated concentrations of particulate matter represent a serious environmental and public health concern, potentially contributing to increased incidence of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases among the local population.
A comparison of air quality data from the cities of Zvolen and Banská Bystrica (Figure 3) indicates that Banská Bystrica has consistently reported higher average annual concentrations of both PM10 and PM2.5, highlighting a greater air pollution burden in this locality. The highest recorded annual PM10 concentration in Banská Bystrica was 33 µg/m3 in 2017 [8]. This value may be influenced by the location of the monitoring station, situated on Štefánik Embankment near a heavily trafficked urban road. The positioning of the Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMÚ) station in the central part of Banská Bystrica offers a credible representation of particulate matter pollution in the city [8].
In contrast, the SHMÚ monitoring station in Zvolen is located to the south of the city’s main industrial zone, home to its largest polluter—Kronospan. Since prevailing winds in this area tend to come from the south and southeast, the station is not directly affected by emissions from this major pollution source. This may partially explain the lower recorded PM levels in Zvolen when compared to Banská Bystrica and also suggests that the measured values may not fully reflect the actual air pollution burden in the city’s industrially exposed areas.
From 2018 onward, both cities show a slight downward trend in PM concentrations, likely linked to the implementation of various environmental measures—particularly restrictions on household heating emissions, modernization of transport, and promotion of cleaner, alternative energy sources. Despite these efforts, the values remained relatively stable between 2021 and 2023, suggesting that further air quality improvements will require more systematic and targeted interventions.
When comparing the results with the legal thresholds set by Decree No. 250/2023 Coll. of the Ministry of the Environment of the Slovak Republic, the annual limit for PM10 is 40 µg/m3, and for PM2.5 it is 20 µg/m3. These limits are visualized in the chart—the PM10 limit as a black dashed line and the PM2.5 limit as a red dashed line [9]
In the case of PM10, all values measured in the cities of Zvolen and Banská Bystrica were below the legally established limits. However, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a stricter limit of 15 µg/m3, which was consistently exceeded in both Zvolen and Banská Bystrica. In the case of PM2.5, the concentrations measured in both Zvolen and Banská Bystrica did not exceed the legally established limits in any of the monitored years. However, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a much stricter annual limit of 5 µg/m3, which was consistently exceeded in both cities.
To achieve lasting improvements in air quality, it will be essential to continue implementing measures aimed at reducing emissions from transportation, household heating, and other local sources—with particular attention to Banská Bystrica, given its persistently higher pollution levels and the strategically relevant location of its monitoring station.

4.2. Ružomberok—PM10 and PM2.5

Ružomberok is a district town located in the Žilina Region in the northern Slovak Republic. With approximately 26,000 inhabitants, it is a significant regional center. The town lies in the western part of the Liptov Basin at the confluence of the Váh and Revúca Rivers and is surrounded by the Veľká Fatra, Low Tatras, and Choč Mountains [12].
The city is home to Mondi SCP Ružomberok, the largest integrated pulp and paper production facility in the Slovak Republic [13]. The operational activities of this enterprise represent a major source of air pollution emissions, particularly sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and suspended particulate matter—PM10 and PM2.5.
Ružomberok is also an important transportation hub, with major roads connecting Žilina with Košice and Banská Bystrica with Dolný Kubín. Historically, the town served as a key junction for trade routes, especially salt routes. Today, the eastern edge of the city, near Ivachnová, marks the terminus of the D1 motorway section, with future plans to extend it further. This expansion is expected to increase traffic intensity even more [12].
The combination of significant industrial activity and high traffic load are the primary contributors to air pollution in Ružomberok. PM10 and PM2.5 particles produced by industry and transportation substantially deteriorate air quality and pose a health risk to the local population [4]. Based on these factors, the city of Ružomberok was selected for comparison with Zvolen in order to assess the impact of intensive industrial activity and associated particulate matter emissions on air quality and public health under differing geographical and dispersion conditions.
The trend analysis of annual average concentrations of suspended particulate matter fractions PM10 and PM2.5 in Zvolen and Ružomberok over the period 2014 to 2023 (Figure 4) reveals notable differences in air quality as well as encouraging developments, particularly in the case of Ružomberok. Throughout the monitored period, Ružomberok consistently exhibited higher concentrations of both PM fractions, indicating a greater level of anthropogenic air pollution. This condition is likely driven largely by the industrial activities of Mondi SCP, the dominant emitter in the region. The monitoring station of the Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMÚ) is located near the plant, meaning that measured values are likely to be directly influenced by emissions from its operations [7].
Despite these higher levels compared to Zvolen, Ružomberok has shown a marked downward trend, particularly in PM10 concentrations, which decreased from 34 µg/m3 in 2014 to 19 µg/m3 in 2023 [7]. A similar trend is observable for PM2.5, with values dropping from 23–24 µg/m3 to 15 µg/m3. This improvement may be attributed to modernization in industrial production, enhanced environmental technologies, and the implementation of stricter emission limits.
In contrast, Zvolen has exhibited more favorable PM levels over the entire period, with a more stable and less fluctuating trend. Annual PM10 concentrations in Zvolen ranged from 17 to 22 µg/m3, while PM2.5 concentrations fluctuated between 12 and 17 µg/m3. The legal limits (shown in the graph—the PM10 limit as a black dashed line and the PM2.5 limit as a red dashed line) were not exceeded in either city, but the WHO limits were systematically exceeded in both cities, as they are much stricter than the legal limits. In Ružomberok, these limits were exceeded or reached on multiple occasions in the past, particularly for PM2.5, but in recent years, the situation has improved considerably and values have dropped below the legal thresholds.
From the perspective of absolute values, Zvolen continues to demonstrate more favorable air quality. However, Ružomberok has recorded more significant improvements in recent years, particularly in terms of declining PM10 concentrations. This trend suggests the effectiveness of implemented air pollution mitigation measures, although Ružomberok still remains more heavily burdened compared to Zvolen. Looking ahead, maintaining this positive development and further reducing emissions—especially from industrial activities, which are predominantly represented in the region by Mondi SCP—will be essential.

5. Health Risks of PM10 and PM2.5 Air Pollution

Particulate matter (PM) poses a serious threat to the respiratory system [14]. Individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions, such as asthma [15], are particularly at risk. Long-term exposure tends to have more severe effects in those with underlying health vulnerabilities. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) can be triggered by air pollution, increasing both morbidity and mortality rates. The primary risk factors include long-term exposure to emissions from traffic, industrial processes, and fuel combustion [16].
In the Slovak Republic, legal limits for PM concentrations (Table 1) are defined based on European legislation to protect public health and minimize the effects of air pollution on the prevalence and severity of respiratory illnesses [9]. Compliance with these limits is especially critical in urban and industrial regions where the risk of exceedance is highest [4].
Cardiovascular effects following PM exposure have also been documented [17,18,19,20].Long-term exposure has been shown to induce changes in blood cell composition and cardiovascular function. Coronary atherosclerosis has been associated with chronic exposure to traffic-related air pollution, while short-term exposure is linked to hypertension, stroke, myocardial infarction, and heart failure [21]. Neurological impacts have been observed in both adults and children following prolonged exposure to air pollutants [21].
The health risks of PM stem from its ability to deposit and transport within the human body. PM deposits in the lungs through mechanisms such as impaction, interception, sedimentation, and diffusion. Generally, larger PM fractions (>PM2.5) are deposited in the upper respiratory tract via impaction [1]. Smaller particles (<PM2.5) can penetrate deeper into the lower respiratory tract and alveoli and may enter systemic circulation, reaching other tissues and organs. Several studies provide evidence that exposure to fine particles causes significant adverse health outcomes [21]. Exposure to PM-bound heavy metals—such as arsenic, nickel, and lead—has been linked to asthma, emphysema, and even lung cancer [22].
An increasing body of epidemiological evidence associates PM air pollution with cognitive decline [23,24]. Recent research has linked PM exposure to neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease [25].
Given the wide range of adverse health effects associated with PM exposure, this study focuses particularly on respiratory diseases. The respiratory system represents a primary entry point for inhaled particles, and its impairment leads to serious health consequences. The following sections provide a detailed overview of selected respiratory conditions, including their clinical characteristics, PM-related pathophysiological mechanisms, and relevance to public health.

5.1. Pneumonia

Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lungs caused by microbial infection and is one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide, with an estimated age-standardized death rate of 41.7 per 100,000 [26].
Hospitalization due to pneumonia is influenced by various individual factors, including age, smoking history, and the presence of chronic diseases [27]. These risk factors significantly increase susceptibility to severe disease progression. In addition to individual predispositions, environmental exposure plays a crucial role—particularly to outdoor pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and carbon monoxide (CO), which contribute to increased incidence and severity of respiratory illnesses [28,29,30].
Among the most harmful air pollutants are fine particles (PM), a complex mixture of extremely small solids and liquid droplets. These may contain acids (e.g., sulfuric acid), organic chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles [31]. Due to their small size and chemical composition, PM can penetrate deeply into the respiratory system, evading upper airway defense mechanisms. Their direct contact with the lower airways induces oxidative stress and inflammatory responses, leading to anatomical and physiological remodeling of lung tissue and elevating the risk of chronic respiratory disease onset or exacerbation [32].

5.2. Bronchitis

Bronchitis is an inflammatory disease affecting the trachea and bronchi, the airways leading into the pulmonary parenchyma. Inflammation causes mucosal edema and excessive mucus secretion, resulting in characteristic coughing that may persist from several days to weeks. Acute bronchitis is predominantly of viral origin, but environmental factors—especially airborne particles—play a key role in its onset and in the progression to chronic forms of the disease [24]. Long-term exposure to such pollutants promotes persistent inflammatory activity and structural changes in the respiratory tract [32].
Exposure to suspended particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5 is a significant environmental risk factor for both the development and exacerbation of bronchitis. Inhalation of these particles irritates and inflames the trachea and bronchi, leading to mucosal swelling, increased mucus production, and the onset of cough—bronchitis’s defining symptom [33]. Acute spikes in PM concentrations are associated with increased incidence of acute bronchitis, especially among children, the elderly, and individuals with respiratory conditions. Chronic exposure raises the risk of chronic bronchitis through sustained inflammation, airway remodeling, and progressive lung tissue damage [33]. The pathogenic mechanism involves oxidative stress, activation of inflammatory cells, and disruption of the epithelial barrier in the respiratory tract [33].

5.3. Asthma

Asthma is a form of allergic lung disease characterized by the accumulation of inflammatory cells and mucus in the airways, accompanied by bronchoconstriction and a generalized airflow limitation. The induction phase of the disease results from the interaction of allergenic proteins with immune cells, particularly dendritic cells, which process antigens and present them to T-lymphocytes, leading to immune system sensitization [34]. Subsequent allergen exposure triggers a complex cascade of mediators, including histamines, leukotrienes, and cytokines, causing bronchial narrowing, increased mucus secretion, and inflammation of the respiratory tract [34].
This inflammatory response leads to airway remodeling, including smooth muscle hypertrophy, goblet cell hyperplasia, and subepithelial fibrosis. These changes cause chronic airway narrowing and reduced lung function. In addition to specific hypersensitivity to allergens, asthmatic individuals often exhibit nonspecific bronchial hyperresponsiveness—an exaggerated reaction of the airways to non-allergenic stimuli such as tobacco smoke, sulfur dioxide, cold air, or hypertonic solutions. PM particles may act as carriers of allergens and toxic substances, induce oxidative stress, and exacerbate inflammation, thereby intensifying bronchial hyperresponsiveness and asthma symptoms.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that acute increases in PM10 concentrations lead to higher medication use, more frequent visits to general practitioners, and increased hospitalizations due to asthma exacerbations [35,36,37,38]. This phenomenon occurs because PM10 particles, when inhaled, penetrate the airways, where they provoke inflammatory responses, aggravate bronchial hyperreactivity, and worsen existing respiratory symptoms [35,36]. Elevated PM concentrations substantially increase the risk of acute asthma attacks, contributing to a decline in patients’ quality of life and placing a greater burden on healthcare systems [36,37]. In addition to their short-term effects, PM10 particles have also been associated with long-term adverse impacts on respiratory health, including gradual deterioration of lung function in individuals chronically exposed to such pollutants [35,36,37,38,39].

5.4. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by a persistent limitation of airflow associated with chronic inflammatory responses in the airways and lung parenchyma, ultimately leading to structural destruction of lung tissue [40]. COPD is frequently accompanied by complications such as acute exacerbations, respiratory failure, and pulmonary hypertension. Mortality rates in COPD patients range from approximately 28% in mild to moderate cases to as high as 62% in moderate to severe forms of the disease [40].
Air pollution is a major risk factor for impaired respiratory health, as confirmed by numerous large-scale epidemiological studies [41,42,43,44,45,46,47]. Among the most harmful ambient air pollutants in the lower atmosphere are nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and ozone (O3), with elevated concentrations closely associated with the onset and worsening of COPD exacerbations [44].
Particular attention is given to particulate matter PM10 and PM2.5, which, due to their small aerodynamic size, can penetrate deep into the lower respiratory tract and release toxic substances. These particles are capable of inducing oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and irreversible lung tissue damage. As a result, they not only exacerbate existing conditions but also directly contribute to the development of COPD [48,49,50,51,52,53,54].
A 2016 analysis revealed that short-term exposure to PM2.5 significantly increases the risk of acute COPD exacerbations, with a focus on emergency hospitalizations and mortality outcomes [44]. Similar findings were presented in a 2013 analysis, which identified an association between PM10 concentrations and higher rates of hospital admissions and mortality among COPD patients [55].

5.5. Pulmonary Emphysema

Pulmonary emphysema, a progressive form of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), is characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and irreversible airflow limitation resulting from damage to the small airways and destruction of alveolar structures [56]. These pathological changes are typically caused by long-term exposure to harmful particles or gases, most commonly from tobacco smoke or environmental pollutants [56].
Prolonged exposure to PM10 and PM2.5 particles represents a significant risk factor for the onset and progression of emphysema. Inhaled particles reach the lower respiratory tract, where they induce chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and remodeling of the lung parenchyma. This process damages the alveolar walls, disrupts alveolar integrity, and leads to the development of emphysematous changes. Epidemiological studies indicate that individuals living in areas with elevated PM concentrations have a higher risk of developing COPD, including emphysema, regardless of smoking status [55].
Moreover, chronic inhalation of these particles contributes to the worsening of pre-existing respiratory diseases, reduced pulmonary function, and overall disease progression. For this reason, limiting exposure to PM particles is a key component of emphysema prevention and disease management strategies [55].

5.6. Acute Upper Respiratory Tract Infection

The upper respiratory tract plays a key role not only in air conduction to the lungs but also in air conditioning—heating, humidifying, and filtering inhaled air. Additionally, it participates in olfaction, swallowing, and speech production. Exposure of the upper airways to adverse environmental conditions, such as cold weather, low humidity, and poor air quality, can lead to inflammation and increased susceptibility to infections [57].
Acute upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) are among the most common illnesses treated in outpatient settings and include infections ranging from the nasal cavity to the trachea. According to the International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision (ICD-10), the three most frequently diagnosed conditions are acute nasopharyngitis, acute pharyngitis, and acute tonsillitis [57].
Multiple studies have demonstrated a significant association between suspended particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations in the air and the incidence of acute URTIs [58,59]. PM particles penetrate the respiratory tract, triggering inflammatory responses, reducing the local immune defense of the mucosal surfaces, and increasing epithelial permeability—thus facilitating colonization and invasion by pathogenic microorganisms. Prolonged or repeated exposure to elevated PM concentrations has been linked to higher frequency of acute infections, greater clinical severity, and increased demand for medical care [58,59].

6. Comparison of the Health Impacts of PM10 and PM2.5 Pollution in the Cities of Banská Bystrica and Ružomberok

6.1. Banská Bystrica—Health Impacts of PM10 and PM2.5

Figure 5 illustrates the development in the number of hospitalized individuals diagnosed with conditions associated with exposure to particulate matter (PM). The bar chart represents data for Banská Bystrica, while the blue line indicates the trend in hospitalizations in Zvolen.
In both cities, the number of hospitalizations remained relatively stable throughout most of the years, without significant fluctuations. However, values in Banská Bystrica were consistently higher than those in Zvolen, indicating a persistently greater burden of PM exposure on the local population. This trend can largely be attributed to the intense road traffic concentrated in the city center, where multiple major traffic arteries intersect.
From the perspective of dispersion conditions, prevailing southwesterly winds may contribute to the accumulation of pollutants in the urban core of Banská Bystrica. In contrast, Zvolen’s more compact urban layout and lower traffic density may support more favorable dispersion conditions and result in lower population exposure to PM.
The significant increase in hospitalizations observed in both cities in 2021 represents an anomaly, likely related to the COVID-19 pandemic. During this period, there may have been an increase in the diagnosis of respiratory illnesses and related complications, some of which were classified as PM-related, even though the direct trigger was the SARS-CoV-2 virus. This factor should be taken into account when interpreting the trend.
The results (Figure 5) emphasize the importance of a spatially sensitive approach to air quality management and public health protection—one that considers not only emission sources but also local climatic and geomorphological conditions. In cities like Banská Bystrica, it is essential to implement targeted measures in the areas of traffic regulation, green infrastructure planning, and expansion of monitoring networks, in order to effectively mitigate the adverse health effects of air pollution on the population.

6.2. Ružomberok—Health Impacts of PM10 and PM2.5

Figure 6 illustrates a comparison of the number of hospitalizations due to respiratory diseases associated with exposure to particulate matter (PM) in the cities of Zvolen and Ružomberok between 2014 and 2023.
The data (Figure 6) show that Zvolen consistently reported a higher number of hospitalizations throughout the entire monitored period compared to Ružomberok, with the most pronounced difference observed in 2021—likely a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic. Following the pandemic peak, hospitalization numbers in both cities gradually returned to the previous trend.
The observed differences between the cities can be explained by geomorphological and meteorological factors that directly affect the dispersion conditions of air pollutants. Ružomberok, situated in the western part of the Liptov Basin, is geographically open to the east and southwest, with prevailing airflows coming from the west [60]. The city’s primary industrial emitter—the Mondi SCP pulp and paper plant—is located on the eastern edge of town. As a result, westerly winds efficiently transport PM particles away from residential areas toward Liptovský Mikuláš and Poprad. Furthermore, Ružomberok lacks significant topographic barriers to the east, enhancing ventilation and reducing the local accumulation of particulate matter.
In contrast, Zvolen is located in the central part of the Zvolen Basin, which is surrounded on all sides by hills and highlands. When prevailing winds blow from the south or southeast, the basin’s terrain acts as a natural buffer zone that inhibits the effective dispersion of PM particles. This leads to the formation of localized pollution hotspots, resulting in a higher incidence of respiratory diseases and, consequently, a greater number of hospitalizations.
These findings suggest that despite Ružomberok’s higher industrial burden, the health risk to its population is comparatively lower—primarily due to its advantageous geographic position relative to dominant wind patterns and the openness of the basin, which enables more efficient pollutant dispersion. On the other hand, Zvolen experiences a higher degree of PM accumulation, which is directly reflected in increased rates of respiratory-related hospitalizations.

7. The Relationship Between Particulate Matter Exposure and Respiratory Diseases

Based on the analysis of PM10 and PM2.5 concentration trends and the number of hospitalizations for respiratory diseases in the city of Zvolen between 2014 and 2023, a clear relationship can be observed between air pollution levels and the health status of the population. The trends in PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations (Figure 7) exhibit a similar dynamic to that of hospitalizations; during periods when particulate matter levels increase, the number of hospitalized individuals also rises, and conversely, when PM concentrations decrease, a reduction in respiratory illness cases is recorded.
This interdependence is particularly evident in the periods from 2014 to 2019 and again from 2022 to 2023, during which year-to-year fluctuations in PM concentrations are accompanied by comparable variations in hospitalization numbers. For example, a slight decrease in PM10 and PM2.5 levels in 2016 corresponds with a lower number of hospitalizations, while their rise in 2018 is reflected by an increase in reported cases.
A significant deviation from this trend occurred in 2020 and 2021. In 2020, a sharp drop in PM concentrations was observed; however, this was followed by a substantial spike in hospitalizations in 2021. This anomaly does not reflect the effects of air pollution but is instead attributable to the COVID-19 pandemic, which significantly impacted public health and led to a surge in hospital admissions due to acute respiratory infections.
Excluding these two exceptional years, a positive correlation can be confirmed between PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations and the number of hospitalizations for respiratory diseases. This relationship is consistent with established scientific knowledge regarding the adverse effects of suspended particulate matter on the human respiratory system, and it underscores the urgent need for measures aimed at reducing population exposure to these harmful pollutants.
A predictive model based on data from 2014 to 2023 estimates the future relationship between concentrations of particulate matter (µg/m3) and the number of hospitalizations (number of cases) due to respiratory diseases in Zvolen during the period 2024–2030. The purpose of this prediction is to assess how anticipated changes in air quality may be reflected in public health outcomes, particularly regarding respiratory conditions. The year 2021, which showed an extreme peak in hospitalizations due to the COVID-19 pandemic, was excluded from the analysis to maintain model stability.
Figure 8 provides a visual representation of the predicted relationship, showing a clear downward trend in both pollutants (PM10 and PM2.5) corresponding to a decreasing number of hospitalizations. To enhance readability and comparability, hospitalization values were scaled prior to visualization, as they are in a different numerical range compared to PM concentrations. The result is a unified, comprehensible graph illustrating the relationship between air pollution and associated health consequences.
The model (Figure 8) indicates that as PM concentrations decline, a reduction in the number of hospitalizations can also be expected. PM10 levels are projected to decrease from 17 µg/m3 in 2024 to 15 µg/m3 by 2030, while PM2.5 levels are expected to fall from 11 µg/m3 to 10 µg/m3. During the same period, the annual number of hospitalizations is projected to decrease from 189 to 161 cases.
This prediction confirms a stable correlation between particulate matter concentrations and hospital admissions, while also validating a declining trend for both variables from 2024 to 2030. The findings support the hypothesis that improving air quality can have a direct benefit for public health. Therefore, the predictive model serves as a relevant tool for decision-making in both public health and environmental policy, highlighting the importance of measures aimed at reducing air pollution as a means of improving population health.

8. Discussion

Air pollution caused by particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) represents a long-documented environmental burden with proven health consequences, particularly in urban agglomerations [62,63]. Particulate matter is capable of penetrating deep into the lower respiratory tract, leading to inflammatory responses, impaired lung function, and cardiovascular complications [1,14]. The health impacts of PM exposure have also been documented in a study analyzing the effects of PM2.5 in China and Europe, which demonstrated that PM2.5 accelerates aging processes and increases the frailty index—posing particular risks for the elderly population [64].
The importance of monitoring PM fractions in relation to public health was already emphasized by the Regional Public Health Authority in Banská Bystrica, which assessed air pollution in Zvolen between 2001 and 2003 [64]. Results indicated a marked increase in concentrations of TSP, PM10, and PM2.5 following a change in the city’s traffic regime in 2002. Although PM2.5 concentrations formally remained below legal limits, their increase was closely linked to seasonal variations and the localization of traffic-intensive areas. These concentrations were also accompanied by elevated levels of NO2, which peaked during the 2003 heating season. From a public health perspective, these results were alarming, as increased levels of PM and nitrogen oxides were directly associated with a rise in respiratory morbidity in the evaluated zones [65].
This trend has been reaffirmed by our own measurements conducted between October 2024 and March 2025. Monitoring PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations at four locations in Zvolen (city center, TUZVO campus, Sekier—Kronospan, and Zlatý Potok) revealed significant spatial variability. The highest concentrations were recorded at the TUZVO site (PM10: 40 μg/m3; PM2.5: 32 μg/m3), while the SHMÚ station on J. Alexy Street in the southern part of the city recorded notably lower values (PM10: 30 μg/m3; PM2.5: 26 μg/m3). This difference can be primarily attributed to prevailing southerly and southeasterly winds, which transport emissions from the main industrial source (Kronospan) northward. Thus, the SHMÚ station is not representative of the entire city, especially not for densely populated areas located north of the plant. We therefore recommend establishing permanent or mobile monitoring stations in other parts of the city—particularly in areas with higher population density. This would enable more effective tracking of air pollutants and offer a more accurate picture of actual air pollution levels across Zvolen. Such an approach could inform evidence-based environmental decision-making and support the development of urban air quality management policies.
Fine particulate matter is capable of penetrating deep into the lower airways, causing both acute and chronic inflammatory reactions, damaging lung tissue, and increasing the risk of asthma, bronchitis, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [1,15,33,37,45,48,66]. These findings are supported by our observations in Zvolen, Banská Bystrica, and Ružomberok, where annual PM concentrations exceeded WHO recommendations in several years and were accompanied by a higher incidence of recorded respiratory diagnoses [10].
The highest concentrations were recorded in Ružomberok, where industrial emissions—primarily from the Mondi SCP plant—play a dominant role. Despite recent technological upgrades that contributed to emission reductions, Ružomberok’s average annual PM concentrations remain higher than in other cities. However, their direct health impact is likely mitigated by prevailing westerly winds, which transport PM particles eastward, away from the city’s main residential zones. In Banská Bystrica, where the SHMÚ monitoring station is located in a traffic-intensive city center, repeated exceedances of the WHO-recommended annual PM2.5 concentration were observed, corresponding with a rising prevalence of respiratory symptoms.
Conversely, Zvolen has recorded lower long-term PM values, which may be influenced by the station’s location outside the reach of the main polluter—Kronospan—and the prevailing wind direction, which transports emissions away from the monitored area. Although PM concentrations in our study did not exceed the legal limits set by Decree No. 250/2023 Coll. of the Ministry of the Environment, they regularly surpassed WHO recommendations, which reflect health risks even at lower concentrations [9]. This confirms a significant difference between the legally permitted and the health-safe levels of PM exposure. Therefore, the long-term health effects of PM exposure should not be underestimated, even when measured values comply with legal regulations.
The results suggest that cities with higher industrial and traffic intensity, such as Zvolen, tend to exhibit higher PM concentrations, contributing to increased respiratory morbidity. Our findings are supported by a study from the Turin area in Italy, where urban zones with high traffic and industrial loads (e.g., Turin) had higher PM10, PM2.5, and PM1 concentrations. In that study, PM10 concentrations varied by station type (28.61 µg/m3 at a background site vs. 36.16 µg/m3 at a traffic site) [66]. The variation in PM concentrations across locations in Turin mirrors our findings from Zvolen, where different sites also demonstrate spatial variability in PM concentrations depending on proximity to traffic and industry [67].
This study clearly confirms the relationship between PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations and the incidence of respiratory illnesses in urban areas. This relationship is determined by a combination of industrial emissions, traffic loads, local meteorological conditions, and household heating practices. Reducing emissions from transport, industry, and residential heating is essential to improve air quality and protect public health [68,69].

9. Conclusions

Based on the conducted analyses and available expert sources, it can be concluded that air pollution caused by particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) represents a serious environmental and public health issue, supported by numerous regional and international studies. The primary sources of these particles are the combustion of fossil fuels in transport, industry, heating, and agriculture. Their presence in the atmosphere causes both acute and chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, increases the risk of health complications, and contributes to premature mortality. Long-term exposure poses a particular threat to vulnerable population groups, especially children, the elderly, and individuals with chronic health conditions.
The findings of the research conducted in the city of Zvolen, compared with data from selected Slovak cities, demonstrate that although the measured PM concentrations formally did not exceed legal limits, they remain high when evaluated against the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. These results highlight a substantial gap between legal thresholds and actual health safety standards. PM concentrations vary significantly by location, depending on local conditions, the positioning of monitoring stations, and other contextual factors. Industrial areas and zones with heavy traffic loads show higher PM levels, which correspond with increased respiratory morbidity.
Regional comparisons clearly indicate that cities with intensive industrial and traffic burdens—such as Ružomberok and Banská Bystrica—tend to record higher PM concentrations and, consequently, a more frequent occurrence of respiratory symptoms, depending on their urban layout and meteorological conditions. In Zvolen, values were lower, likely due to the location of monitoring stations and more favorable dispersion conditions. Nevertheless, the results still indicate a health risk for the population and call for continuous monitoring and effective emission control.
A direct relationship between PM concentrations and the incidence of respiratory diseases has also been confirmed, influenced by a combination of geomorphological and meteorological factors.
It must be emphasized that effectively addressing the problem of air pollution requires a multidisciplinary approach, incorporating technical, legislative, environmental, and healthcare measures. A key component is regular air quality monitoring through a network of reference and supplementary stations coordinated by the Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMÚ), in accordance with European standards and directives—most notably Directive 2008/50/EC on ambient air quality. Monitoring must include daily, annual, and cumulative exposure assessments of PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, and other pollutants that directly affect human health [70].
Another crucial element is the identification and regulation of pollution sources, including both mobile and stationary sources such as industrial facilities, heating systems, transportation, and agriculture. Emission reduction measures are further supported by the European Union’s strategy for low-emission and zero-emission technologies, and the Slovak Republic has committed to fulfilling these objectives through its National Emission Reduction Action Plan [71].
From the public health perspective, close cooperation is necessary between Regional Public Health Authorities and the Ministry of the Environment in assessing population exposure and determining limits for daily and annual exposure. These efforts must be informed by epidemiological studies and health impact assessments of air pollution, particularly regarding respiratory diseases and other chronic conditions. WHO recommendations—including an annual limit of 10 μg/m3 for PM2.5—are essential for setting target values and policy measures.
Such a comprehensive and integrated approach is vital to safeguarding public health and achieving national and European environmental objectives. Full implementation of WHO guidelines into national legislation, aligned with EU law, has the potential to significantly improve air quality, reduce the environmental and health impacts of pollution, and ensure long-term sustainability and quality of life in the Slovak Republic.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: P.I.; formal analysis: P.I. and M.M.; investigation: P.I.; methodology: P.I.; resources: P.I. and M.M.; visualization: P.I. and M.M.; writing—original draft: P.I.; project administration: P.I. and M.S.; writing—review and editing: P.I. and M.M.; supervision: M.S.; validation: M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Funded by the EU NextGenerationEU through the Recovery and Resilience Plan for Slovakia under the project No. 09I03-03-V05-00016.

Data Availability Statement

All original contributions of this study are contained within the article; additional information is available upon request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 measured at the J. Alexy monitoring station in Zvolen during the period 2014–2023 [8].
Figure 1. Concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 measured at the J. Alexy monitoring station in Zvolen during the period 2014–2023 [8].
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Figure 2. Comparison of measured PM concentrations with values reported by the Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMÚ).
Figure 2. Comparison of measured PM concentrations with values reported by the Slovak Hydrometeorological Institute (SHMÚ).
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Figure 3. Comparison of PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations between the cities of Zvolen and Banská Bystrica based on SHMU data [8]. ZV—Zvolen. BB—Banská Bystrica.
Figure 3. Comparison of PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations between the cities of Zvolen and Banská Bystrica based on SHMU data [8]. ZV—Zvolen. BB—Banská Bystrica.
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Figure 4. Comparison of PM10 and PM2.5 particles between the cities of Zvolen and Ružomberok based on SHMÚ data [7]. ZV—Zvolen. RK—Ružomberok.
Figure 4. Comparison of PM10 and PM2.5 particles between the cities of Zvolen and Ružomberok based on SHMÚ data [7]. ZV—Zvolen. RK—Ružomberok.
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Figure 5. Comparison of the numbers of hospitalized persons for diagnoses caused by PM particles in the years 2014–2023 between the cities of Zvolen and Banská Bystrica.
Figure 5. Comparison of the numbers of hospitalized persons for diagnoses caused by PM particles in the years 2014–2023 between the cities of Zvolen and Banská Bystrica.
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Figure 6. Comparison of the number of hospitalized persons for diagnoses caused by PM particles in the years 2014–2023 between the cities of Zvolen and Ružomberok.
Figure 6. Comparison of the number of hospitalized persons for diagnoses caused by PM particles in the years 2014–2023 between the cities of Zvolen and Ružomberok.
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Figure 7. Correlation between the incidence of respiratory diseases and PM particle concentrations in the city of Zvolen [9,61].
Figure 7. Correlation between the incidence of respiratory diseases and PM particle concentrations in the city of Zvolen [9,61].
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Figure 8. Prediction of the correlation between respiratory disease incidence and PM concentrations in the city of Zvolen for the period 2024–2030. Prediction of the correlation between the incidence of respiratory diseases and PM particle concentrations in the city of Zvolen.
Figure 8. Prediction of the correlation between respiratory disease incidence and PM concentrations in the city of Zvolen for the period 2024–2030. Prediction of the correlation between the incidence of respiratory diseases and PM particle concentrations in the city of Zvolen.
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Table 1. Limit values for the protection of human health (Decree of the Ministry of the Environment No. 250/2023 Coll.) [9].
Table 1. Limit values for the protection of human health (Decree of the Ministry of the Environment No. 250/2023 Coll.) [9].
PollutantAverage PeriodLimit Value
PM101 day50 µg/m3 may not be exceeded more than 35 times per calendar year
calendar year40 µg/m3
PM2.5calendar year20 µg/m3
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Ivan, P.; Schwarz, M.; Mikušová, M. Assessment of Health Risks Associated with PM10 and PM2.5 Air Pollution in the City of Zvolen and Comparison with Selected Cities in the Slovak Republic. Environments 2025, 12, 212. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12070212

AMA Style

Ivan P, Schwarz M, Mikušová M. Assessment of Health Risks Associated with PM10 and PM2.5 Air Pollution in the City of Zvolen and Comparison with Selected Cities in the Slovak Republic. Environments. 2025; 12(7):212. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12070212

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ivan, Patrick, Marián Schwarz, and Miriama Mikušová. 2025. "Assessment of Health Risks Associated with PM10 and PM2.5 Air Pollution in the City of Zvolen and Comparison with Selected Cities in the Slovak Republic" Environments 12, no. 7: 212. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12070212

APA Style

Ivan, P., Schwarz, M., & Mikušová, M. (2025). Assessment of Health Risks Associated with PM10 and PM2.5 Air Pollution in the City of Zvolen and Comparison with Selected Cities in the Slovak Republic. Environments, 12(7), 212. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12070212

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