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Article

Zinc Accumulation Pattern in Native Cortaderia nitida in High Andes (Ecuador) and Potential for Zinc Phytoremediation in Soil

by
Karina I. Paredes-Páliz
1,
Benito Mendoza
2 and
Jennifer Mesa-Marín
3,*
1
Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo (UNACH), Riobamba 060108, Ecuador
2
Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo (UNACH), Riobamba 060108, Ecuador
3
Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Campus Reina Mercedes, 41012 Seville, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Environments 2024, 11(9), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11090205
Submission received: 14 June 2024 / Revised: 31 August 2024 / Accepted: 4 September 2024 / Published: 18 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environments: 10 Years of Science Together)
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Abstract

:
The aim of this work was to determine the content of heavy metals in soil and, for the first time, in wild Cortaderia nitida, and to discuss its potential as a metal phytoremediator plant. We sampled sediments (bulk and rhizosphere) and C. nitida (roots and shoots) in three nearby spots with different land uses (urban, industrialized and agricultural) along the Chibunga river basin (Ecuador). We analyzed the physico-chemical parameters in soil and heavy metal contents in soil and plants. The agricultural sediments showed the highest conductivity and redox potential, but the lowest pH. Among all the metals analyzed in soil and plants, we only found significant values of Zn and Fe. We observed clear differences in patterns of Zn distribution throughout soil and plants among the three areas sampled, thus suggesting that soil properties played an important role in Zn compartmentalization. Also, C. nitida demonstrated effective Zn translocation from roots to shoots, especially in farmlands (translocation factors between 1.64 and 2.51). Together with the results obtained for other Cortaderia species in metal-polluted areas, this study proposes C. nitida as a candidate to further study its metal phytoremediation potential and encourages this research in heavy metal-enriched soils.

1. Introduction

Cortaderia nitida (Kunth) Pilg., commonly known as “sigse”, is a perennial C3 tussock grass from the Poaceae family, which was originally from South America and was first described in 1906 [1]. The native habitat of this species includes the coastal countries spanning from Costa Rica to Peru, being particularly present in the subalpine and alpine zones of the Andes [2]. C. nitida is a large, perennial, clump-forming grass. Tussocks may reach over 2 m tall, with big plumose inflorescences that are persistently intact and whitish leaf sheaths and sharp-edged leaf blades (Figure 1). They contain a branched rhizome system, meaning they easily grow from rhizome fragments [3].
In high Andean areas of Ecuador, C. nitida is one of the most common and historically important plant species. According to local populations, it has been traditionally used in house construction and decoration, and to make kites for children. Its sawed leaves have been used to spin wool or to cut off the umbilical cord of newborns. Also, it is used in the field as living barriers for cattle livestock. Despite its importance, there are no studies other than taxonomical on this species. The most studied species of Cortaderia genera is C. selloana, as it has been identified as an invasive species [4], after being introduced to Europe as an ornamental because of their large and plumose inflorescences [5,6,7]. In Australia, it replaces natural plant communities and excludes plants through shading and below ground competition, since rhizome fragments tend to take roots and establish new colonies wherever they are deposited [8].
Environments 11 00205 g001
Figure 1. (A) MaxEnt-based modeling of a suitable habitat for Cortaderia nitida in Ecuador, designed by the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador (adapted from [9]). Black crosses represent locations where the species has been recorded. (B) Picture of C. nitida taken by the authors during sampling.
Figure 1. (A) MaxEnt-based modeling of a suitable habitat for Cortaderia nitida in Ecuador, designed by the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador (adapted from [9]). Black crosses represent locations where the species has been recorded. (B) Picture of C. nitida taken by the authors during sampling.
Environments 11 00205 g001
Interestingly, several authors have found that wild C. selloana [10,11] and other related species like C. hapalotricha [12], C. jubata [13] and C. rudiscola [14], growing in Mexico, Peru and Chile, respectively, are able to accumulate high concentrations of heavy metals in their tissues, making them potential candidates for phytoremediation purposes. In fact, grasses are considered prospective candidates due to their high biomass yields, fast growth, adaptations to infertile soils and successive shoot regrowth after harvest [15]. For example, the authors of this work have demonstrated the effective heavy metal accumulation and phytostabilization of other species from the Poaceae family, such as Spartina [16,17].
However, little is known concerning C. nitida and its metal accumulation abilities, despite the fact that some Andean areas where it grows are crossed by highly polluted rivers, like the Chibunga river. Along its banks, there are agricultural, livestock, urban, educational and recreational areas, as well as industrial facilities like the cement factory “Cementera Chimborazo” [18]. The Chibunga microbasin serves as a waste recipient body for those activities. At the same time, it is used for crop irrigation, especially for broccoli (Brassica oleracea), whose production in Ecuador remains in the Andean region, being an important source of income for small farmers [19]. These activities have caused the deterioration of the ecological characteristics of the environment, together with several social and environmental complications [18,20]. This is particularly worrying for heavy metals, as they are non-biodegradable elements that may accumulate with prolonged effects, mainly when they bioaccumulate in animals and plants [21]. Some plants can overcome metal toxicity by restricting their uptake, compartmentalization into vacuoles and synthesis of phytochelatins, metallothioneins, hormones, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants, etc., which eventually leads to heavy metal uptake and translocation, detoxification or sequestration. These plants are in the spotlight of environmental research because plant-based solutions are emerging as novel technologies for the phytoremediation of contaminated soil [22].
Thus, the aim of this work was to determine the heavy metal content in soil and wild Cortaderia nitida in a specific area of the Chibunga river basin in high Andean Ecuador, and to evaluate the metal phytoremediation capacity of C. nitida. We chose three nearby spots with different land uses, including urban, industrialized and agricultural. We hypothesized that the heavy metal content in soil may be higher in the industrialized area and expected that, as with other related species of Cortaderia, C. nitida may naturally show heavy metal accumulation in its tissues.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Sampling

The following three sites located in the Chibunga basin, Chimborazo province, Ecuador, were sampled for this work in May (dry season) (Figure 2): (A) Calpi (−1.644340, −78.746442 or 1°38′39.6″ S 78°44′47.2″ W, 3067 m above sea level), a village representing an urbanized area; (B) the immediate vicinity of the cement factory “Cementera Chimborazo” (−1.655562, −78.757120 or 1°39′20.0″ S 78°45′25.6″ W, 3113 m above sea level), as representing an industrialized area; and (C) Gatazo (−1.673649, −78.746849 or 1°40′25.1″ S 78°44′48.7″ W, 3140 above sea level), an agricultural area. GPS coordinates were obtained using a Garmin GPS map 62s. Calpi and Gatazo are located within a radius of 3 km from the cement factory (Figure 3). In each site, samples of bulk sediment, rhizosediment of C. nitida and whole plants of C. nitida were collected (n = 3). To collect bulk sediment, a drill of 10 cm diameter was used until a depth of approximately 20 cm was reached in areas where vegetation was absent. To collect rhizosediments, the same drill was used next to C. nitida plants until a depth of approximately 20 cm was reached, coinciding with its radicular system. To collect plants, thick gloves were used to prevent skin cuts. Finally, plant and sediment samples were put into individual plastic bags inside a portable cooler and immediately transported to the laboratory, where they were conserved at 4 °C until further processing.

2.2. Sediment and Plant Physico-Chemical Analysis

The pH of the sediments was determined using a pH meter in the supernatant of a mixture of 10 g of soil and 25 mL of distilled water (1:2.5) after agitation for 30 min and soil sedimentation. The conductivity of the soil was determined using a conductivity meter after dilution with distilled water (1:1). The redox potential was calculated by using a portable self-calibrated probe according to [23]. The soil texture was determined in accordance with FAO guidelines [24].
To determine the total concentration of iron (Fe), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) in plants and sediments, the atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) technique was used. Subsamples were first oven dried and digested as follows. Then, 1 g of the oven-dried ground sample was weighed using a top loading balance and placed in a 250 mL beaker previously washed with nitric acid and distilled water. The sample was reacted with 5 mL of HNO3, 15 mL of concentrated H2SO4 and 0.3 mL of HClO4. The mixture was digested in a fume cupboard and heating continued until a dense white fume appeared. The mixture was then ingested for 15 min, set aside to cool and diluted with distilled water. The mixture was filtered through acid-washed Whattman No. 44 filter paper into a 50 mL volumetric flask and diluted to mark volume. The sample solution was then aspirated into the atomic absorption spectrophotometer at intervals [25].

2.3. Bioconcentration, Bioaccumulation and Translocation Factors

The bioconcentration factor (BCF) and bioaccumulation factor (BAF) were calculated to determine the efficiency of C. nitida in accumulating heavy metals from the soil. They were calculated for each metal as follows:
BCF = metal concentration in roots/metal concentration in rhizosediment
BAF = metal concentration in roots + leaves/metal concentration in rhizosediment
A BCF greater than 1 would mean a higher concentration of metals in the roots rather than in the soil, while a BAF greater than 1 would indicate metal accumulation in the whole plant over the soil.
The translocation factor (TF) was calculated to determine the ability of C. nitida to translocate metals from the roots to the shoots. It was calculated for each metal as follows:
TF = metal concentration in leaves/metal concentration in roots
A TF greater than 1 would mean that metals accumulate to a larger extent in the aerial tissues rather than in roots.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was carried out using Statistica v. 10.0 (Statsoft Inc., Tulsa, US). One-way ANOVA was used to analyze the influence of location in each type of sediment/plant tissue (as categorical factors) on pH, electrical conductivity, redox potential and metal content (Fe, Pb, Cu, Cd and Zn) (as dependent variables). The Fischer LSD test (post hoc) was applied to establish the significance between treatments (p < 0.05). Data were first tested for normality with the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and for homogeneity of variance with the Brown–Forsythe test.

3. Results

3.1. Physico-Chemical Traits of Bulk Sediments and Rhizosediments

Several physico-chemical properties of sediments were analyzed and are displayed in Table 1. We observed that the pH of the sediments ranged from 7.46 to 8.52, being higher at the cement factory and lower in Gatazo farmlands. Also, the pH from C. nitida rhizosediment was lower than the pH in bulk soil in Calpi and Gatazo. Lastly, the conductivity of sediments ranged from 82 to 261 μS/cm. In all cases, rhizosediments showed ×1.3 to ×2 higher conductivities than bulk sediments. It was also noteworthy that the conductivities in Gatazo arable lands were from 47 to 140% greater than those in Calpi or the cement factory. The redox potential ranged from 138.63 to 163.33 mV. It was similar among Calpi and the cement factory, but significantly greater (10%) in Gatazo, as was the same with conductivity.
Overall, Gatazo sediments showed the highest conductivity and redox potential, but the lowest pH. Also, significant differences among bulk sediment and rhizosediments were obtained only for Calpi and Gatazo. C. nitida rhizosediments showed higher values than bulk soil with regard to conductivity and redox potential, while the pH values were slightly higher for bulk sediments.

3.2. Metal Content in Sediments and Cortaderia Nitida Tissues

For most of the metals analyzed, in all of the samples (sediments and plants), we found concentrations below the limit of detection of the technique, which was as follows: Pb < 0.05 mg kg−1, Cu < 0.01 mg kg −1, and Cd < 0.002 mg kg −1. We only found significant concentrations of Fe (from 641 to 11,210 mg kg−1) and Zn (from 5.4 to 18.5 mg kg−1). Thus, we focused on these metals for further analysis and discussion. The Fe and Zn contents in sediments and C. nitida tissues are illustrated in Figure 4.
Although the Fe distribution pattern was different in the three locations, the Fe content showed the same gradient, which was as follows: bulk sediment (7700 to 11,200 mg kg−1) ≥ rhizosediment (5400 to 9800 mg kg−1) ≥ C. nitida roots (2700 to 6600 mg kg−1) > C. nitida leaves (640 to 1200 mg kg−1, the narrowest range). Agricultural lands (Gatazo) showed the greatest levels of Fe in all the samples. On the contrary, Fe levels in Calpi and the factory were similar, except for rhizosediments.
The Zn distribution in the sediments and C. nitida plants was completely different from Fe, and the Zn distribution pattern depended on the sampling site. The Zn content in urban and agricultural sampling sites shared the following gradient: bulk sediment (13 to 14 mg kg−1) > rhizosediment (9 to 11 mg kg−1) > C. nitida roots (5 to 7 mg kg−1). However, C. nitida leaves showed a difference in these two sites. C. nitida leaves in Gatazo showed a remarkable Zn content, reaching values 77% higher than leaves from Calpi, 15% higher than bulk sediments, 60% higher than rhizosediments and 63% higher than roots. On the other hand, for the factory sampling site, the Zn gradient was as follows: rhizosediment (17 to 20 mg kg−1) ≥ C. nitida leaves (16 to 18 mg kg−1) > bulk sediment (10 to 11 mg kg−1) ≈ C. nitida roots (8 to 11 mg kg−1).

3.3. Zinc Accumulation Capacity of Cortaderia nitida

Data for bioaccumulation (BAF), bioconcentration (BCF) and translocation (TF) factors are shown in Table 2. For Fe, all the indexes were <1, indicating that C. nitida did not accumulate Fe in its tissues. On the other hand, Zn showed very different results. The bioaccumulation factor (BAF) was greater than 1 in all sampling sites, suggesting that C. nitida had the ability to accumulate Zn in its tissues. However, the bioconcentration factor (BCF) was less than 1 in the three sites, meaning that C. nitida did not accumulate Zn in the roots. Accordingly, the translocation factor (TF) was greater than 1 in the three locations, indicating that C. nitida translocates Zn from roots to shoots. When comparing factors according to sampling sites, C. nitida plants from Gatazo agricultural lands clearly showed the highest BAF and TF scores (over 2), being 50% higher than those in Calpi and the factory, which were similar.

4. Discussion

In this work, we studied total heavy metal concentrations in several sites along the Chibunga river basin, and found up to 20 mg Zn kg−1 in sediments. The values found did not exceed the threshold values that the Ecuadorian government has established in its national regulation for soil quality and intervention, which is 60 mg Zn kg−1 [26,27], nor the reference value of 100 mg kg−1 Zn suggested by other authors [28]. On the other hand, this work is the first report analyzing the heavy metal content in the species C. nitida. We registered up to 18 mg Zn kg−1 DW leaves of C. nitida. This concentration is not considered harmful for plants in general. Zn is an essential nutrient and toxicity symptoms may be observed from 100 mg Zn kg−1 DW [29]. However, we found an interesting Zn distribution pattern in the plant. We observed that C. nitida accumulated Zn in its tissues, as indicated by bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) greater than 1 (from 1.42 to 2.18). More specifically, we showed that C. nitida translocated Zn from roots to shoots. This was indicated by translocation factors (TFs) over 1 (between 1.64 and 2.51). Our results were in line with the findings of [12], who found in wild C. hapalotricha from the Peruvian Andes a TF for Zn between 1.2 and 2.5. Our study and that of [12] demonstrate that both Cortaderia species showed similar TFs for Zn, despite the fact that the Zn concentration in the soil was very different (20 mg Zn kg−1 dry soil and 28,000 mg Zn kg−1 air dry soil, respectively). These findings suggest that C. nitida may also have the capacity to accumulate high concentrations of Zn in its shoots when growing in highly Zn-polluted soil. On the contrary, several authors reported that the species C. selloana had a relevant capacity for root phytostabilization of Zn with no translocation to shoots (TF 0.46) in mining areas around Mexico with Zn rhizosediment concentrations of 5000 mg kg−1 [10,11]. These studies demonstrate the phytoremediation potential of Cortaderia species. However, it seems that the phytoremediation strategy demonstrated by the plant may depend on factors like the Cortaderia species itself, the Zn soil concentration or physical and chemical characteristics of soil.
Our study showed that, although no major differences were observed between the Zn concentration in the bulk sediment at the three locations (10–14 mg Zn kg−1), the Zn distribution along rhizosediments and C. nitida did vary greatly, thus suggesting that the soil properties played an important role in Zn compartmentalization, as they differed among the three sampling sites. It is known that soil type, moisture, mineral and clay types and contents, diffusion and mass flow rates, weathering rates, soil organic matter and soil biota, among others, will affect Zn distribution and availability, and therefore plant uptake of Zn [30]. pH is also a dominant factor determining soil Zn distribution [29]. It has been shown that the bioavailability of Zn for plant absorption increases at a lower pH [31,32,33,34], as also represented [35] by the Truog diagram (Figure 5), which has guided soil nutrient research until recently [36]. Based on this theory, we may suggest that a lower soil pH in the agricultural Gatazo area may lead to greater zinc bioavailability and then increased mobilization to shoots. In industrial sediments, a higher soil pH may mean that more Zn is retained around the rhizosphere. The Truog diagram (Figure 5) may support this suggestion, as it shows that Zn availability decreases from 7.46 (soil pH in Gatazo farmlands) to 8.52 (soil pH in the factory area). However, it would be interesting to analyze other macro and micronutrient concentrations in soil and plants, as competitive uptake might also explain site-based differences observed in accumulation patterns, rather than pH alone. Also, there is another factor to consider in this regard, namely the difference among the total and available concentrations of Zn. It is known that Zn may exist in different stable forms that may be pH-dependent, as illustrated for example by Pourbaix diagrams [37], ultimately affecting plant uptake. Despite the fact that various authors studying metal accumulation in different Cortaeria species have used different techniques, such as ICP mass spectroscopy [12] and direct-aspiration (or flame) atomic absortion spectrophotometry [10,11,14], in all cases, the total metal concentration has been assessed. Thus, it would be interesting to deeply analyse the forms in which those metals may be found.
Another relevant observation drawn from this study was that the uptake of Zn by roots and shoots was not linearly correlated to the Zn external concentration. For example, in industrial and urban areas, the Zn content was similar in the rhizosphere and leaves of C. nitida. However, in the case of Gatazo arable lands, C. nitida leaves presented 2× higher level of Zn than in rhizosediments. Rhizosediments in Gatazo recorded the highest conductivity and redox potential values, which may have a positive effect on Zn translocation and explain our observations. For example, ref. [38] reported that there was a positive correlation between soil electrical conductivity and Zn content in tissues of Cousinia sp. and Cirsium congestum. In the same way, ref. [39] reported a stimulatory effect of soil salinity on Zn accumulation in tillers of Spartina densiflora (Poaceae). However, some authors observed that soil supplementation with NaCl was linked to a reduction in Zn tissue concentrations in the metal accumulator Juncus acutus [40] and in wheat [41].
This work raises questions for further lines of research concerning C. nitida metal accumulation and potential phytoremediation abilities. On one hand, it would be interesting to analyze the extent of phytoaccumulation rates of Zn and other metals in C. nitida. For this, it would be necessary to sample C. nitida plants in natural areas with a high heavy metal content in the soil, in line with the work of other authors, mainly in mine tailings. For example, C. hapalotricha has been found to be a Pb hyperaccumulator species, as it showed concentrations of Pb in shoots of over 1000 mg kg−1 [42], as well as a TF greater than 1 for As, Cd and Cu [12]. Also, ref. [14] reported that wild C. rudiscola in Chile was able to uptake Cu, Hg and As up to 250×, 64× and 100× times, respectively, the environmental limits allowed for edible plants. In Mexico, wild C. selloana showed high concentrations of Pb, Cu and Cd in roots and flowers [10,11]. Lastly, C. jubata has been found to be the majority species (56.34% of total vegetation) in a high Andean mine in Peru, whose soil contained 3500 mg kg−1 Zn, 630 mg kg−1 Pb, 300 mg kg−1 As, 50 mg kg−1 Cu, 20 mg kg−1 Cd, 15 mg kg−1 Ni and 40 mg kg−1 Hg [13]. Therefore, it might be expected that C. nitida may be able to accumulate heavy metals at high concentrations in its tissues. Additionally, it would also be interesting to monitor the heavy metal content over consecutive months or seasons, as [14] recently demonstrated that the Cu, As and Hg content in several plant species, including C. rudiscola, showed differences between different months during one year. In fact, the flow of the Chibunga river is known to be reduced during the dry season (from May to November approximately), which may lead to a greater concentration of soil pollutants [18]. Finally, it would be highly revealing to study the influence of soil parameters on the metal accumulation capacity of C. nitida. In case of demonstrating phytoaccumulation abilities, it could be proposed as a phytoremediation tool in Ecuador, as national legislation favors in situ remediation techniques in areas needing intervention [26]. In this case, it would also be necessary to study efficient phytoremediation approaches. For example, as perennial plants, they might show different shoot–root translocation indexes according to climatic events like drought, which would dictate harvesting periods. Other interesting applications may include removal technologies for heavy metals using specific elements of C. nitida, as several authors have used C. selloana flower spikes [43]. These findings would also be ecologically significant, as a high Zn content in C. nitida shoots may represent a potential health risk because C. nitida may be consumed by livestock or wild animals (and ultimately reach humans) and harvested for ornamental purposes.

5. Conclusions

In this work, we observed that C. nitida effectively carried out Zn translocation from the roots to the shoots, showing the highest translocation factor values in agricultural lands. Also, we obtained different patterns of Zn distribution among the three areas sampled, meaning there was not a direct and consistent correlation between Zn in bulk soil, rhizosediments or the roots and shoots of C. nitida. These results suggested that soil properties, and particularly rhizosediment properties, like pH, conductivity or redox potential, played an important role concerning Zn compartmentalization among soil and C. nitida tissues. This study raises the next issues to be addressed, and together with the results obtained for other Cortaderia species in polluted areas suggests that C. nitida may be a candidate to further study its phytoremediation potential in heavy metal-enriched soils.

Author Contributions

K.I.P.-P. and J.M.-M. conceived and designed the research. Material preparation, data collection and experiments were performed by K.I.P.-P., J.M.-M. and B.M. J.M.-M. and B.M. analyzed the data. J.M.-M. wrote the first draft of the manuscript and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work has been funded by the Oficina de Cooperación al Desarrollo, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain (AYP/11/22, AYP/07/23, AYP/24) and the project “Caracterización de la oferta y demanda hídrica en el área de influencia del acuífero del Chambo”. J. Mesa-Marín is grateful to the Junta de Andalucía for personal funding (Talento Doctores ref DOC_00725 Fondo Social Europeo y Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad de la Junta de Andalucía). K.I. Paredes-Páliz is grateful for funding from the University of Seville, Spain (VIIPP.III.3A). The APC was funded by Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo, Ecuador.

Data Availability Statement

The data collected for this study are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10868380 (accessed on 25 March 2024).

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the suggestions of the reviewers, which greatly improved this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Environments 11 00205 g002
Figure 2. Location of the sampling sites.
Figure 2. Location of the sampling sites.
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Figure 3. Picture taken from Gatazo (sampling site C). It is possible to see the cement factory (red arrow), and Chimborazo volcano at the back, which gives the province its name.
Figure 3. Picture taken from Gatazo (sampling site C). It is possible to see the cement factory (red arrow), and Chimborazo volcano at the back, which gives the province its name.
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Figure 4. Content of (A) Fe and (B) Zn in sediments and tissues of C. nitida in the three locations sampled in three locations (urban, industrial and agricultural) in the Chibunga river basin, high Andean Ecuador. Points are mean values ± S.E. (n = 3).
Figure 4. Content of (A) Fe and (B) Zn in sediments and tissues of C. nitida in the three locations sampled in three locations (urban, industrial and agricultural) in the Chibunga river basin, high Andean Ecuador. Points are mean values ± S.E. (n = 3).
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Figure 5. Truog conceptual diagram representing the relationship between soil pH and nutrient availability [35].
Figure 5. Truog conceptual diagram representing the relationship between soil pH and nutrient availability [35].
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Table 1. Characteristics of the sediments studied. Data are mean values ± S.E. (n = 3). Different letters indicate that they are significantly different from each other (p < 0.05).
Table 1. Characteristics of the sediments studied. Data are mean values ± S.E. (n = 3). Different letters indicate that they are significantly different from each other (p < 0.05).
LocationSedimentpHConductivity
(μS/cm)		Redox Potential
(mV)		Texture
Calpi
(urban)		Bulk8.32 ± 0.10 a89.00 ± 14.57 a141.53 ± 4.72 abLoamy
Rhizosediment7.98 ± 0.09 b155.33 ± 12.91 c149.00 ± 3.28 abSilty loam
Factory
(industrial)		Bulk8.47 ± 0.15 a82.00 ± 2.00 a141.36 ± 7.23 abLoamy
Rhizosediment8.52 ± 0.08 a108.67 ± 16.47 ab138.63 ± 1.07 aSilty loam
Gatazo
(agricultural)		Bulk7.85 ± 0.02 b131.33 ± 6.48 bc151.16 ± 0.49 bcSilty loam
Rhizosediment7.46 ± 0.03 c261.66 ± 11.46 d163.33 ± 2.63 cSilty loam
Table 2. Bioaccumulation factor (BAF), bioconcentration factor (BCF) and translocation factor (TF) for Zn and Fe in Cortaderia nitida plants (n = 3) growing in the three locations sampled for this study, in the Chibunga river basin in high Andean Ecuador. Values in grey are greater than 1. (*) indicates values are significantly different between sites (p < 0.5).
Table 2. Bioaccumulation factor (BAF), bioconcentration factor (BCF) and translocation factor (TF) for Zn and Fe in Cortaderia nitida plants (n = 3) growing in the three locations sampled for this study, in the Chibunga river basin in high Andean Ecuador. Values in grey are greater than 1. (*) indicates values are significantly different between sites (p < 0.5).
LocationFeZn
BAFBCFTFBAFBCFTF
Calpi (urban)0.42 *0.34 *0.231.480.561.64
Factory (industrial)0.91 *0.670.35 *1.420.511.77
Gatazo (agricultural)0.79 *0.670.182.18 *0.622.51 *
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MDPI and ACS Style

Paredes-Páliz, K.I.; Mendoza, B.; Mesa-Marín, J. Zinc Accumulation Pattern in Native Cortaderia nitida in High Andes (Ecuador) and Potential for Zinc Phytoremediation in Soil. Environments 2024, 11, 205. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11090205

AMA Style

Paredes-Páliz KI, Mendoza B, Mesa-Marín J. Zinc Accumulation Pattern in Native Cortaderia nitida in High Andes (Ecuador) and Potential for Zinc Phytoremediation in Soil. Environments. 2024; 11(9):205. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11090205

Chicago/Turabian Style

Paredes-Páliz, Karina I., Benito Mendoza, and Jennifer Mesa-Marín. 2024. "Zinc Accumulation Pattern in Native Cortaderia nitida in High Andes (Ecuador) and Potential for Zinc Phytoremediation in Soil" Environments 11, no. 9: 205. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11090205

APA Style

Paredes-Páliz, K. I., Mendoza, B., & Mesa-Marín, J. (2024). Zinc Accumulation Pattern in Native Cortaderia nitida in High Andes (Ecuador) and Potential for Zinc Phytoremediation in Soil. Environments, 11(9), 205. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11090205

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