Palaeoclimatic Geoheritage in the Age of Climate Change: Educational Use of the Pleistocene Glacial and Periglacial Geodiversity

Abstract

The lithological record of past climates and climate changes reveals significant potential in enhancing education and understanding of global climate changes and their impacts on contemporary societies. A relatively young geological record of Pleistocene cooling and glaciations serves as one of the most useful geo-educational tools. The present study encompasses a comprehensive review of ongoing efforts to assess and communicate the glacial geoheritage of the Pleistocene, with a detailed case study of Poland. A literature review is conducted to evaluate the extent of scientific work on inventorying and communicating the geodiversity of Pleistocene glacial and periglacial environments globally. The study demonstrates a steady increase in the number of scientific contributions focused on the evaluation and promotion of Pleistocene geoheritage, with a notable transition from the description of geosites to the establishment of geoconservation practices and educational strategies. The relative complexity of the palaeoclimatic record and the presence of glacial geodiversity features across extensive areas indicate that effective scientific communication of climate changes requires careful selection of a limited number of geodiversity elements and sediment types. In this context, the use of glacial erratic boulders and rock gardens for promotion of Pleistocene glacial geoheritage is advocated, and the significance of educational initiatives for local communities and the preservation of geocultural heritage is outlined in detail.

1. Introduction

Past climate changes are recorded in lithological features, fossil content and landforms [1], and patterns of climatic fluctuations from the past are revealed in detailed studies of geodiversity. Although the definition of geodiversity differs between studies [2,3], the growing number of contributions adopt the concept of Gray [4], in which geomorphological, hydrographical, lithological, pedological and topographical diversities are included within the framework of geodiversity. Although a multitude of qualitative and quantitative methods of geodiversity evaluation have been proposed, a unified approach towards the assessment of abiotic diversity still needs to be developed [5]. Geodiversity features that exhibit scientific significance [6] or other exceptional values, such as cultural, educational or geotouristic [7], are identified as geoheritage. In the context of accelerating climate change, elements of geoheritage that represent the legacy of past climates and climate changes, referred to here as palaeoclimatic geoheritage, provide an invaluable means of communicating the potential impacts of current climatic shifts from a geological perspective [8,9]. The applicability of geodiversity and geosites in communicating and elucidating climate changes has been postulated in several studies (e.g., [10,11,12]). Harris [13] argued that consideration of geological time enables a more comprehensive understanding of ongoing climate change, a broader view of the Earth’s system, and recognition of the directions of potential future changes. Gordon [14] emphasised the significance of education regarding past environmental and climatic changes, which fosters comprehension of ongoing climate change and enhances geotourism offerings.

The diversity of the palaeoclimatic record is complex and does not fall into a distinct type within existing thematic classifications of geodiversity, such as those proposed by Ruban [15] and Bradbury [16]. While certain aspects of past climatic changes are encompassed by the palaeogeographical type of geodiversity [17,18,19], Migoń [1] demonstrated that palaeoclimatic geodiversity integrates various dimensions of geological heritage: geomorphological, palaeontological, sedimentological, geochemical, and others. The complexity of palaeoclimatic geoheritage and its omission in current thematic classifications of geoheritage are accompanied by a lack of systematic descriptions. The initial attempt to categorise palaeoclimatic geoheritage was proposed by Migoń [1]. Increased attention is directed towards the threats imposed by ongoing climate change on geodiversity and the conservation of geosites during periods of climate change [14,20,21,22,23,24]. The number and relative complexity of geological processes responding to ongoing climate changes, alongside the variety of resulting minerals, sediment types, and landforms, indicate that the use of palaeoclimatic geodiversity for educational purposes can be challenging [25]. However, an effective explanation of the palaeoclimatic geoheritage has the potential to raise awareness of its importance and ultimately stimulate geoconservation efforts. Moreover, there are documented examples of the use of geodiversity elements that demonstrate past climates to communicate contemporary environmental challenges and ongoing climate change [26,27,28].

Within the realm of palaeoclimatic geodiversity, a relatively young geological record of the Pleistocene cooling and glaciations, with the late Pleistocene and early Holocene warming, is considered as particularly useful for geo-educational purposes [29]. These relatively recent events, which exhibit significant spatial extents in both hemispheres, effectively illustrate the implications of climate change to a broad audience, and are used in connection with recent initiatives, such as International Geodiversity Day, International Geomorphology Week, and local Geographer’s Days. Pleistocene fluctuations in climatic conditions and glacial–interglacial cycles have been recognised since the nineteenth century. Sediments and landforms that developed beneath or in front of the Pleistocene continental ice sheets and mountain glaciers are widespread geological features that shape the landscapes of significant portions of North America, Europe, Asia, and South America. Glacial and glaciofluvial unconsolidated sediments cover approximately 14.2 million km² (17% of the global land area) [30], third only to the alluvial and aeolian sediments (Figure 1). Loess deposits and loess derivatives also exhibit significant spatial coverage, present across 4.9 million km² (6% of the global land area) [30]. Although many loess covers have a non-periglacial or multiple origin [31], they preserve an important record of climatic changes during the Quaternary [32,33]. Many loess plateaus of the northern hemisphere have been formed along the marginal zones of the continental ice sheets.

Although they are among the most common and widespread geodiversity elements, Pleistocene sediments and landforms associated with climatic changes and glaciations possess significant geotouristic and geo-educational potential [38]. Educational initiatives that employ the glacial and periglacial geoheritage of the Pleistocene involve interpretation and outreach that build appreciation, ultimately achieving successful conservation [39]. Existing strategies make use of formal and informal education, museums, national and local organisations [39], and in most cases are focused on the creation of physical and digital resources [10,11]. The multidisciplinary nature of Pleistocene geodiversity and its connections to biodiversity and cultural heritage are among the most important characteristics that can be involved in scientific communication [40]. The use of existing geosites also has significant potential for knowledge dissemination [29]. However, the conservation of unconsolidated Pleistocene deposits and geosites presents a substantial challenge and necessitates repeated efforts and expense [41]. Conversely, the abundance of Pleistocene glacial, glaciofluvial, and periglacial sediments and landforms enhances their chances for preservation against adverse environmental impacts of human activity. Due to their relatively recent formation, they are well-preserved, offering a unique perspective on Earth’s history, demonstrating significant geo-educational potential, and representing a vital resource for the dissemination of geoscientific knowledge.

The considerable complexity of Pleistocene glacial and periglacial geodiversity, underscored by a variety of sedimentary environments responsible for its evolution, the heterogeneity of sedimentary architectures and processes involved in their formation, and the increasing volume of scientific contributions highlight the necessity for a comprehensive review of current efforts aimed at assessing and communicating Ice Age geoheritage. The aim of the present study is (1) to summarise the current trends in evaluation and educational use of Pleistocene geodiversity, and (2) to outline potential future directions for disseminating scientific knowledge related to glacial geoheritage. A case study on the scientific communication of glacial geoheritage of Poland is examined in greater detail, including information on the most frequently used educational methods.

2. Materials and Methods

The study is designed to include two steps:

• A literature review is carried out to identify the amount of scientific work on inventorying and communicating the geodiversity of the Pleistocene glacial and periglacial environments;
• A case study of the use of the Pleistocene glacial and periglacial geodiversity for educational and geotouristic purposes on the territory of Poland is analysed, to measure the scientific production not included in electronic databases and published in languages other than English.

The research methods employed in this study aim at identifying the Pleistocene glacial, glaciofluvial and periglacial geological features that are most attractive and most widely used for geotouristic purposes. The study also illustrates the educational strategies that make the dissemination of knowledge of these features most effective, enhancing the visitors’ experience and fostering sustainable use and the protection of geodiversity.

2.1. Review of the Literature

Reproducible algorithms for the selection and evaluation of the literature facilitate the study of knowledge areas [42]. The bibliometric analysis procedure is summarised in Figure 2 and consists of three steps:

• literature retrieval;
• identification of relevant publications;
• data collection.

In the initial phase, the Scopus and Web of Science databases were employed. The search queries used to retrieve relevant publications are presented in Figure 2. The scope of the study is restricted to peer-reviewed journal articles published in English. Initial research has shown that numerous different expressions related to education and climate change are used in relevant papers. Therefore, these keywords have not been used in the search queries and suitable contributions were manually extracted from the search results. The literature search, carried out in February 2025, resulted in 929 records from Scopus and 317 from Web of Science. Scientific reports included in non-peer-reviewed periodicals are omitted from this literature review. The overall effort to document and promote the Pleistocene features of glacial and periglacial origin is therefore broader than assessed in this contribution. However, the use of scientific databases offers a reliable overview of recent research activity and facilitates the identification of current trends in studies related to Pleistocene geodiversity.

In the subsequent analysis step (step 2 in Figure 2), duplicates were removed, and papers not directly related to the geotouristic and geo-educational use of Pleistocene glacial, glaciofluvial, and periglacial landforms, geomorphosites and deposits were excluded. During the last stage of the literature review (step 3 in Figure 2), the geographic locations of the study areas were retrieved, the names of the sediment types and landforms studied were extracted, the papers were assigned to predefined categories, and the educational methods described in the papers were determined. An Excel datasheet with bibliographic data was produced for 197 articles selected for analysis, with information obtained from the text (Supplementary Materials, Table S1).

The literature review has important limitations. The keywords to which selected papers are assigned are subjective and were chosen by the authors. The use of search phrases in English excludes the scientific contributions published in other languages, whereas the application of terms that became widely used in the 21st century, such as geotourism, limits the results to relatively recent contributions. To accommodate for these limitations, the case study was used in the subsequent step of the analysis.

2.2. Educational Use of the Glacial Geodiversity of Poland: A Case Study

To measure efforts aimed at geoconservation and the promotion of Pleistocene glacial geodiversity not reflected in international journals, this study examines the use of glacial geodiversity in Poland for geotouristic and educational purposes. Poland ranks second to Italy in the number of studies on geodiversity documenting Pleistocene climate changes; however, unlike Italy, Poland does not experience active glacial processes or periglacial conditions. Scientific efforts aimed at the evaluation and promotion of glacial geodiversity in Poland are thus focused on sediments and landforms dating back to the Pleistocene, rendering them suitable for case study research.

During the Pleistocene, Poland’s territory was glaciated multiple times by Scandinavian ice sheets that extended to the mountain ridges of the Sudetes and the Carpathians situated at the southern end of the country, where alpine glaciers developed (Figure 3). Approximately 95% of the total area of Poland was covered by ice [43]; glacial and glaciofluvial deposits exposed on the surface together account for about 63% of the country (estimated from 1:500,000 scale geological map of Poland [43]). The study area is therefore well-positioned to investigate glacial geodiversity and its application in geotourism and science communication. The case study is structured in two parts:

• The analysis of the Central Register of Polish Geosites, a national-scale initiative aimed at inventorying geodiversity and providing a web-accessible geosite database https://geologia.pgi.gov.pl/geostanowiska/ (accessed on 1 August 2025), maintained by the Polish Geological Institute;
• A bibliometric analysis of research papers not included in the Web of Science and Scopus databases, or published in Polish, pertaining to the glacial geodiversity of Poland, its protection, and the promotion of geotourism.

The analysis of the Central Register of Polish Geosites aimed to identify geosites and geodiversity sites associated with Pleistocene glaciations and climate changes. Their localities were mapped, and the density of geosites in areas covered by glacial, glaciofluvial, and loess deposits was calculated. Geosites that record Pleistocene climate changes are compiled in a separate Excel datasheet (Supplementary Materials, Table S2), which includes information on types of landforms and/or deposits documented at each geosite. This analysis enabled an estimation of the overall significance of Pleistocene geological features in geoconservation and geotourism efforts within Poland’s territory.

Bibliometric analysis (step 2) was conducted using the Google Scholar search engine, which indexes scientific publications not included in the Web of Science and Scopus databases. The keywords employed in the search query were entered in Polish to ensure the retrieval of all relevant documents. The search yielded 169 results (retrieved on 25 February 2025). Publications other than scientific papers (i.e., those not peer-reviewed or lacking abstracts and detailed bibliographic information) were excluded from the results obtained from Google Scholar. From the remaining items, duplicates were removed, abstracts were screened, and articles unrelated to the assessment of geodiversity, conservation, geotourism, or scientific communication were omitted. The final selection comprised 45 publications, which were supplemented by an additional 15 articles identified in reference lists. A total of 60 papers were included in the Excel datasheet (Supplementary Materials, Table S3). For each item, a list of referenced Pleistocene landforms and sediments was generated, along with information on geoconservation and educational efforts associated with them. A summary of the results obtained led to the identification of general trends in the research on the glacial geodiversity of Poland and its protection and promotion.

3. Results

3.1. Literature Review

The papers selected for the review were published from 1999 to 2024. The distribution of study areas is global, with a total of 45 countries represented. The majority of research was conducted in Europe (148 research papers), with the highest concentration of study areas found in Italy (36), Poland (34), and the United Kingdom (20). In Asia, 20 articles were published, with China (7) and the Republic of Korea (3) being the most represented (Figure 4). Few research areas were identified in Africa and Central America; this is attributed to the scarcity of Pleistocene glacial and periglacial features.

The majority of papers focus on geodiversity assessment (75; 38.0%), educational and scientific communication efforts (44, 22.3%), issues related to geoconservation (38, 19.3%) and the designation of geosites (34, 17.3%; Figure 5a). Other research topics include geotourism (31, 15.8%), geoparks (15, 7.6%) and geocultural heritage (10, 5.1%). Five papers provide a review of earlier efforts and/or research at a general scale, referring directly to glacial geodiversity of the Pleistocene or to Quaternary geoheritage in general [26,38,39,44,45]. Some papers may be assigned to more than one category listed above and in Figure 5a, as these research areas are interconnected and commonly overlap.

Within the educational and promotional efforts related to Pleistocene geodiversity, the most prevalent means are geotouristic trails (mentioned in 27 papers), physical interpretation facilities, such as panels (18) and educational/visitor centres that provide a complex set of interpretative facilities, trained personnel, and education events on a regular basis (15). Other strategies aimed at knowledge dissemination include direct geo-education (workshops and events), publications, websites/mobile applications, and rock gardens (Figure 5b).

Among the Pleistocene glacial and periglacial sediments and landforms discussed in the papers under study, cirques and glacial erratics are the most frequently noted (both cited in 35 articles). Glacial troughs (34), glacial tills (22) and ice-marginal moraines (19) follow in frequency (Figure 5c). More subtle remnants of the Pleistocene climate, aside from glacial and glaciofluvial landforms and sediments, are also considered as significant components of Pleistocene geodiversity; among these, fossil remains of Pleistocene megafauna (17 articles), loess-palaeosol successions (17) and periglacial sediments and landforms (16) are most commonly referenced.

The volume of research on Pleistocene glacial geodiversity is growing steadily, with 119 (60.4%) papers published during the period 2011–2020 and 67 (34.0%) papers published between 2021 and 2024 (Figure 6). The number of studies and research topics shows significant variation among years, with a notable peak in 2011. Starting in 2015, the number of papers exceeded 10 each year. Despite some variation, the volume of studies published after 2020 reveals only a slight increase. There is no sign of significant further growth of the number of research topics, showing that recent studies are more theme-specific than in the early years of this research area. The percentage of research items focused on geosite designation and geodiversity assessment decreased from 55% between 1999 and 2010 to 22.8% during the period 2011–2020, but subsequently increased to 46.3% between 2021 and 2024. The proportion of papers dedicated to geoconservation increased from 9% (1999–2010) to 22.8% (2011–2020). Research on educational strategies flourished, with the number of published papers rising from one prior to 2010 to 30 (25.2%) during the decade 2011–2020. However, on the scale of a year, no significant increase in the number of studies focused on scientific communication has been noted between 2015 and 2022. Recent years have witnessed an increase in the number of papers related to geotourism, from zero papers published prior to 2010, through 18 (15.1%) published sources for the period 2011–2020, to 12 (17.9%) papers for 2021–2024. A less pronounced increase is noted in studies of Pleistocene geoheritage in existing and planned geoparks (eight papers published between 2021 and 2024; 11.9%).

3.2. Case Study: Pleistocene Geodiversity of Poland

Although 94.5% of the territory of Poland was glaciated during the Pleistocene, only 2934 geosites (81.4%) are located within the glaciation limits, and 994 geosites (27.6%) are situated on moraine plateaus and outwash plains, which comprise 52.9% of the country’s area. Moreover, only 871 geosites (24.2%) are directly related to Pleistocene geodiversity. Among them, glacial boulders predominate (326 geosites; 9.0%; Figure 7). Terminal moraines (93; 2.6%), subglacial tunnel valleys (59; 1.6%) and kames/kame terraces (54; 1.5%) are also well represented. Geosites that record Pleistocene geodiversity are unevenly distributed (Figure 8 and Figure 9), with many concentrated in the Cassubian Lakeland, Szczecin Heights and Bukowe Hills [46], and within planned geoparks (Geopark Yotvings [47]; Postglacial Land of the Drawa and Dębnica Rivers [48]). The low density of geosites in central Poland results from the obliteration of glacial landforms and deposits by denudation that occurred after the retreat of the ice sheet circa 130 ka ago [49]. In northern Poland, where glacial and glaciofluvial sediments were deposited during and after the Last Glacial Maximum (25–11 ka ago; Figure 9), glacial landforms are better preserved and more distinctive, making them more suitable for designation as geodiversity sites and geosites.

The bibliographic research revealed that the evaluation, conservation, and promotion of glacial geodiversity in Poland are widely discussed in scientific publications. However, according to Jamorska et al. [49], studies that include a systematic evaluation of the geodiversity of the glacial landscape of Poland remain very rare. Out of 197 results from the Web of Science and Scopus databases, 34 papers document the Pleistocene glacial geodiversity of Poland. Moreover, there are 60 research items published in Polish or not included in these databases (Supplementary Materials, Table S3). All these publications describe the geodiversity of Pleistocene landforms or deposits, 27 of them (45.0%) include assessments of the Pleistocene geodiversity, while educational efforts aimed at knowledge dissemination are discussed in 21 (35.0%) articles. Descriptions of geosites also appear in 21 contributions (Figure 10a). Other topics include geoparks (13) and geoconservation (10). When compared to the international research indexed in Scopus and Web of Science databases, contributions devoted to geotouristic analyses (7) and geo-cultural heritage (3) are relatively rare.

Strategies used to disseminate knowledge of Pleistocene geodiversity, mentioned in papers selected for this review (Figure 10b), include rock gardens (10 articles; 16.7%), interpretation facilities (9 articles), and educational trails (8 articles). Scientific studies of more holistic initiatives, such as educational centres, are less common. Expert evaluation and numerical assessment of geodiversity are used in most papers. However, measurements of preferences among the general public and data obtained from geotourists, such as surveys, are rare.

Among the elements of Pleistocene geodiversity, glacial boulders are studied most intensively (24 papers; 40.0%). Terminal moraines (11 articles; 18.3%) and loess-palaeosol successions (11 articles) follow in frequency (Figure 10c). The geographical distribution of studies is uneven, concentrated within the established and planned global and national geoparks (Figure 3). Other geographical units of Poland are represented more sparsely.

4. Discussion

The number of contributions that refer to the geodiversity associated with Pleistocene climate change experiences a steady rise, consistent with the pattern observed in all geodiversity and geoheritage studies [50,51,52]. The absence of material that predates 1999 results from the rare use of the terms that have been used in the search queries in papers published in the twentieth century. The last four years have also witnessed the emergence of studies focused on palaeoclimatic geodiversity and geoheritage [1,8,23,53,54]. Research items addressing the geoheritage of the Pleistocene epoch exhibit signs of maturation, evidenced by a decrease in studies limited to the description and evaluation of geosites. A notable shift toward contributions that address geoconservation practices and educational strategies is also apparent (e.g., [23,55,56,57]). The rapid development of geotourism and geoparks is reflected in the increasing number of studies (e.g., [52]). This indicates that the glacial and periglacial geodiversity of the Pleistocene is receiving heightened attention.

4.1. Conservation of Pleistocene Geoheritage

The relative abundance of Pleistocene glacial landforms facilitates the management of geotouristic activities, and their potential degradation poses a lesser threat to the future of scientific research. However, their loss could still negatively impact the local economy. Sedimentary glacial landforms are particularly at risk, as they are often subject to active quarrying, are non-renewable, and cannot be replaced without glaciations [58]. Furthermore, the nature of unconsolidated Pleistocene deposits results in diminishing exposures over time. The conservation of these landforms requires additional labour and expenses associated with re-excavation [38]. Without these conservation efforts, geosites and geodiversity sites comprising unconsolidated sediments are prone to disappear in urban and other anthropogenic environments [59,60]. When these adverse effects extend over large areas, they can lead to a significant loss of geodiversity, despite the presence of similar landforms and sediments in extensive regions of the Earth. The disappearance of erratic boulders from the postglacial landscape of Poland [61] exemplifies this trend. This underscores the necessity of conserving geoheritage associated with the Pleistocene glacial–interglacial climate cycles.

4.2. Educational Strategies

In the present literature review, of the 197 scientific articles selected, 44 discuss strategies for Pleistocene outreach, and the number of these contributions soars. The importance of engaging interpretation strategies in the promotion of Pleistocene glacial geodiversity is reflected by the growing number of published contributions that consider the application of diverse educational techniques. However, traditional geotouristic facilities such as geological trails and interpretative panels are most frequently referenced in studies included in the literature review. A minority of published contributions refer to other means of geoscience communication, such as interpretative centres (15 papers) or direct (that is, involving direct communication with the instructor) geo-education (7 articles). The limited use of advanced methods of scientific communication concerning glacial geoheritage is further exemplified by the case study of Poland. Notably, glacial, periglacial, and glaciofluvial sediments and landforms comprise less than 25% of the geosites included in the Central Register of Polish Geosites, despite the fact that glacial and glaciofluvial sediments from the Pleistocene are exposed on the surface of more than 60% of the territory of Poland [43]. Moreover, among 871 Pleistocene geosites and geodiversity sites listed in the Central Register of Polish Geosites, only a minority are associated with interpretative venues (22 geosites with observation decks and six with rock gardens), although not all glacial and periglacial sites that offer interpretative information are included in the inventory. There is also room for future development of geological itineraries that revolve around the Pleistocene geodiversity of Poland [62]. Advanced interpretation centres and georoute networks are rare outside the existing geoparks and national parks of Poland. Interestingly, dinosaur theme parks are well developed within the same area [63]. This demonstrates that, although the geodiversity and geotouristic potential of the Pleistocene landforms and sediments is appreciated (34 research papers published in international journals and 60 written in Polish or not included in scientific databases have the study area located in Poland), the research efforts directed at the development of interpretative venues are lagging behind. Large-scale thematic routes [64] and visitor centres located near sites with Pleistocene fauna remains [65] are known from other countries, but most sites suffer from a lack of interpretation facilities and geoconservation strategies [66]. Antić et al. [53] described an innovative concept of a palaeoclimate visitor centre that would use the record of loess-palaeosol sequences and the Pleistocene megafauna for educational purposes and for the development of geotourism. So far, this is the most advanced and relevant idea for Pleistocene geoheritage studies regarding the dissemination of knowledge on palaeoclimatic geodiversity.

Recent discourse on geo-education emphasises the transition between unidirectional communication of knowledge supervised by trained geoscientists and participatory models of science education [67,68]. The second approach to the promotion of geodiversity and geoheritage involves a dialogue instead of a monologue delivered by professionals [69], and is considered indispensable for future geoscientific communication initiatives [67,70]. However, the literature review shows that the inclusion of participatory and co-creation models in communication practices remains nearly absent in the studies related to Pleistocene glacial and periglacial geodiversity. The problem extends beyond the realm of palaeoclimatic geoheritage. Although the importance of the bottom-up approach in the development of geoparks [71,72] and the need for the activation of local communities and stakeholders in effective conservation and promotion of geoheritage [73,74,75] are widely accepted, participatory initiatives are still relatively rarely discussed in the geoscientific literature [68]. However, in the communication of climatic changes, the shift toward public engagement is particularly urgent [76,77,78]. Future efforts aimed at promoting palaeoclimatic geoheritage should therefore include components of dialogue and co-creation phases to ensure the engagement of local communities that could potentially benefit from the conservation and communication of geodiversity.

Although Migoń [1] accepts interpretation panels as a minimalistic solution for explaining palaeoclimatic geoheritage, the same author advocates the use of interpretation or visitor centres to address the difficulties in communicating the geoheritage of past climatic changes. Recommendations for such centres have been outlined by Antić et al. [53]. However, visitor centres with professional personnel are mostly available in geoparks and geosites that exhibit extremely high geotouristic values, which is not the case for most of the Pleistocene geodiversity elements. Therefore, the application of other outreach measures is required. Strategies used in the dissemination of knowledge related to complex geological features include viewpoint geosites [79]. They foster the understanding of large-scale landforms, but are rare on extensive postglacial lowland plains, such as in central Europe. Among the other techniques that extend the interpretation efforts to encompass geological phenomena at the scale of regional geographical units (regional scale of Brocx and Semeniuk [80]), digital assets, such as three-dimensional views of the Earth’s surface and digital elevation models, can be employed [79]. Mobile applications, interactive maps, animated media [81,82], 3D visualisations [83], augmented reality [84], and virtual geological tours (e.g., [11,85]) also embrace a wider spatial perspective. Digital resources (images, videos, maps, applications and other digital elements available on the Internet) can be assembled to build a digital visitor centre that introduces the user to the geological diversity and characteristics of the study area, analogous to traditional physical educational centres [86]. However, more detailed studies are required on the influence of the communication of past climatic changes on environmental behaviour. The use of historical data to improve public engagement is advocated in earlier contributions [87], and there is evidence showing that references to palaeoclimatic records in introductory courses in geosciences contribute to significant score improvements [88] and to increased interest in contemporary climate changes [89]. On the other hand, knowledge related to past changes or collapses of ecosystems from distant history does not necessarily improve current environmental behaviours [77,89], leaving much room for further improvements and more detailed studies.

4.3. Possible Future Directions in the Promotion of Glacial Geoheritage

Regardless of the interpretative techniques involved, the communication of palaeoclimatic geodiversity is not straightforward. The relationship between a particular landform or sediment type and the climatic conditions during the Pleistocene, as well as the flow dynamics of glaciers or ice sheets, is often not clear to a nonspecialist [1]. Glacial landforms and unconsolidated sediments tend to be less visually dramatic than rock formations, and their aesthetic appeal arises more from the overall picturesque quality of the landscape than from the shapes and colours of the rock formations. Additionally, glacial and glaciofluvial landforms of the Pleistocene, shaped by ice sheets, cover extensive areas and extend far beyond the scale of an individual geosite. While the advance and deglaciation of a small glacial lobe can be convincingly demonstrated within a geopark (for example, see the Muskau Arch UNESCO Global Geopark [90]; Figure 9), it becomes much more challenging to communicate knowledge related to the patterns of ice sheet dynamics across larger regions. Nonetheless, issues related to the scale and complexity of individual landforms/geosites, as well as landscapes that span large areas, are of great importance for the study of geodiversity. Brocx and Semeniuk [80] discussed the concept of scales of reference applicable for describing sites of geoheritage significance, ranging from regional to fine scales, and from megascale down to leptoscale. Geological features and landforms that extend over the area of a mountain range or a drainage basin (such as canyons, dune fields, and structures of Archaean cratons) occupy the highest order of hierarchical significance. Sediments and landforms associated with entire glaciations or a specific glacial depositional phase clearly belong to the same category. Efforts aimed at describing, assessing, and disseminating knowledge about Pleistocene geodiversity should operate at the highest level of reference to provide the best explanations of climatic changes as well as the dynamics of ice sheets and extensive mountain glaciers. However, geological features on a large scale encompass numerous smaller units. Their formation necessitated a sequence of events, which should be conveyed to the public with an overarching overview to illustrate the interplay of various geological processes.

The application of educational strategies that address large spatial and temporal scales does not necessarily require the detailed explanation of numerous geological processes and features. The complex nature of palaeoclimatic geodiversity, which arises from various geological processes leading to the formation of diverse sediments and landforms, indicates that focusing on a singular, carefully selected geodiversity element could enhance the effectiveness of a scientific communication strategy. This approach would facilitate the understanding of past climate changes without resorting to excessive simplification. A reduced number of processes that need to be explained can also be used to enrich communication by incorporating elements beyond geodiversity, such as biodiversity and aspects of cultural heritage. The use of a specific geological feature, such as rock types [71], boulders and blocks [91,92] and landforms [93], to elucidate broader concepts or to introduce students or visitors to the complex geological history of the region is well-established in the disciplines of geoscience and geoheritage studies.

Erratic boulders are among three geodiversity features, along with cirques and glacial troughs, that are most frequently referenced in papers included in the literature review. They also constitute key elements of geodiversity within Pleistocene ice sheet areas and are important indicators of past climate changes [94,95]. In Poland, erratic boulders were deposited by the Fennoscandian Ice Sheet during several glacial periods [96], originating from the Fennoscandian Shield and Baltic Depression [97,98]. Historically used in construction (Figure 11a; [99,100]), many boulders have since vanished [61], though some are now protected [101]. Rock gardens (lapidaria) are widely used for educational purposes to demonstrate glacial erratics and Pleistocene glaciation history (Figure 11b). More than 15% of the papers published in Polish and included in the present literature review contain descriptions of existing and planned rock gardens. Such venues provide opportunities to study the diversity of rock types, observe specimens from various locations, and serve as an extension of indoor museum exhibitions [102,103,104]. Examples of the implementation of rock gardens as artificial geologic outcrops and mapping areas for introductory geological courses are also known [105,106,107] (for a comprehensive list, see Wong Hearing et al. [108]). The use of outdoor exhibitions of glacial erratics for communicating Pleistocene climate changes will be outlined in greater detail here. However, it must be noted that their application in education is feasible only in selected contexts. Other topics, such as the communication of the geodiversity of periglacial areas and the geoheritage of past mountain glaciers, necessitate the selection of different geodiversity elements to facilitate the successful dissemination of knowledge related to past climatic changes. The review of the literature reveals that fossil remains of Pleistocene megafauna and loess-palaeosol successions are also frequently referenced in communication of the extant glaciations, showing great potential for future use of these features.

4.4. The Importance of Erratic Boulders and Rock Gardens

The introduction of rock gardens prevents the loss of erratic boulders due to vandalism, theft [61], and their use in stone masonry workshops (e.g., [109,110]), thereby preserving relics from the Ice Age and local abiotic heritage. Outdoor exhibitions of erratic boulders stored ex situ are documented in Poland (Figure 8; [111,112]) and other countries (e.g., [44,113,114,115,116,117,118]). Rock gardens also include local rock specimens, showcasing the geological diversity of the region (e.g., [104,119,120,121,122]). They document past geological processes and serve as regional geological exhibitions. Raising awareness of geoheritage enhances public understanding of Earth processes and human–nature interactions, and promotes environmental responsibility.

Rock gardens fulfill significant functions: educational, cultural, aesthetic, and geotouristic, and they also possess unique scientific value.

4.4.1. Scientific Value

The primary advantage of boulders in rock gardens lies in their scientific value. They represent various petrographic types, providing information on geological processes, such as magma crystallisation, metamorphism, weathering, sediment deposition, and compaction (Figure 11c). The Scandinavian origin of erratic boulders confirms the activity of the Pleistocene ice sheet, whereas characteristic indicator erratics (Figure 11d; [123,124,125]) point to specific source areas of glacial alimentation. Their structural features help reconstruct the movement of ice sheets across northern Europe.

Boulders exhibiting visible surface modifications, such as striations or polished areas, document processes of glacial transport and abrasion. Post-depositional features, such as aeolian weathering or exfoliation, indicate the periglacial conditions under which these microforms developed. The most scientifically valuable boulders remain in their original location (in situ), supporting stratigraphic studies and paleoclimatic reconstructions. Some have been used for cosmogenic isotope dating of deglaciation events [126,127,128,129,130,131]. Today, only the largest boulders remain in place, constituting an irreplaceable element of natural heritage. Many smaller boulders have disappeared from the landscape, obliterating the historical extent of glacial boundaries.

4.4.2. Educational Function

Rock gardens located near schools have significant educational potential, presenting rock specimens of diverse origins, sizes, and colours. Their use depends largely on the creativity of teachers, who incorporate them into lessons in subjects such as geography, history, mathematics, or art [132]. Field classes, local science outreach events and guided interpretations by professional interpreters enhance student engagement.

The appropriate infrastructure, such as information boards, rock labels, and small-scale architecture, improves accessibility (Figure 11e; [132,133]). In the vicinity of higher education institutions, rock gardens support curricula in geography, geology, and environmental sciences, fostering experiential learning. They also promote awareness of geoheritage, linking geological knowledge with cultural and biological aspects.

Although not protected in Poland (excluding the Nature Conservation Act [134]), rock gardens preserve geological heritage and emphasise regional geodiversity. Erratic boulders can play an important role in shaping attitudes that support environmental protection by drawing attention to the significance of nature and the need to preserve it. Through educational and informational activities, local communities gain the tools to make well-informed decisions regarding the legal protection and conservation of geological sites. This issue has been addressed, for example, by [112,113,114,115,132,135,136,137,138,139,140].

Effective geointerpretation fosters a sense of territorial identity (sense of place) among visitors [141], while also shaping and reinforcing appropriate geo-ethical attitudes [142] and pro-environmental behaviour [68]. The participation of local communities is essential during most stages of establishing a new rock garden, from the acquisition of available glacial erratics and the selection of suitable locations to the design of the garden and the conservation of the existing site. This makes rock gardens particularly well suited to promotional strategies based on participatory and co-creation models of geoscience communication [68,69,143]. The use of digital resources (mobile applications, virtual field trips) associated with physical venues also stimulates the participation of local communities, as shown in a previous study [85], and have proven to be useful in communication of past climate changes [11].

The use of rock gardens enables the integration of a geoscientific message with the communication of biodiversity and cultural heritage. Such a perspective is advocated in the ABC (abiotic, biotic, cultural) framework [144]. The petrographic garden located in the arboretum in Kwidzyn (northern Poland; Figure 11f) offers a game inspired by geocaching to explain the principles of the rock cycle and the origin of the main groups of rocks. At the same time, the game redirects the participant to locations in which similar rocks are forming within the present global tectonic framework and to native species of trees and shrubs in these areas. The QR codes placed near the erratic boulders exhibited in the garden refer the visitor to the website, where a more detailed guide to the identification of minerals and rocks is provided. The locations of individual glacial boulders were chosen to correspond with a broad shadow of the gnomon and the sundial located in the centre of the lapidary. This permits the integration of the message related to the origin of the boulders and the record of the Pleistocene climate changes with the dissemination of knowledge about biodiversity or from other scientific disciplines. Although more advanced digital technologies such as virtual reality [145] have not been used, the initiative merged the physical interpretative facilities with a digital component aimed at more effective geoscientific communication. The game requires a smartphone and a Web browser; it guides the user through the rock garden and the surrounding arboretum, explaining the origin of erratic boulders, and communicating knowledge related to Pleistocene glaciations. The systematic study of the result of the use of digital tools developed for the rock garden in Kwidzyn has not yet been completed, and this is an important direction for future research.

4.4.3. Cultural Significance

Large, visually striking erratic boulders often serve as monuments or bases for commemorative plaques, fulfilling an important cultural role. After World War I, erratic boulders have been used to commemorate the results of the plebiscite that determined the state affinity of the historical region of Warmia (then Germany, now in Poland) during massive border redrawing in central Europe [146]. Most of the territory was granted to East Prussia (then in Germany), with a small minor area in the southwestern part of the area that was given to Poland [147]. Monuments commemorating the plebiscite, in most cases made of erratic boulders, were erected in areas granted to Germany (Figure 11g). Interestingly, the 100th anniversary of the plebiscite saw a new episode of the use of glacial erratics to set stones that celebrated the plebiscite in localities that were ceded to Poland (Figure 11h).

In 2018, erratic boulders were also widely used in Poland to commemorate the centenary of the restoration of Polish independence (Figure 11i; [148]). Similar cultural monuments can be found in many other regions of Poland that were formerly covered by Pleistocene glaciations. In all of these locations, they serve to spread knowledge about prominent local figures, historic battles, and important regional events.

4.4.4. Aesthetic, Sentimental, and Quality-of-Life Significance

Erratic boulders, especially when placed in thoughtfully designed locations like pocket gardens [149,150], enhance the visual quality of public spaces. Their distinct forms and colours enrich landscapes, inviting contemplation, passive recreation, and informal learning [151]. Found in parks, schoolyards, and campuses, they often become focal points that foster a sense of place and improve community well-being. Such features are valued by residents and visitors, promoting local pride and tourism [103,132,136,143,148]. However, their geosystem services are rarely studied scientifically and are mostly noted in local guides, especially when tied to legends or history [152,153].

Many boulders also hold sentimental value, linked to local stories and memories, strengthening community identity. Their presence in familiar settings contributes to a sense of belonging and attachment to place. In this way, rock gardens and erratic stones improve quality of life by offering accessible, meaningful, and geologically rooted spaces for reflection, relaxation, and community identity [132,143].

It is hard to overlook the fact that projects that involve the installation of information boards near erratic boulders, the construction and maintenance of access paths, and the addition of small infrastructure, such as picnic shelters, bicycle racks [148], benches, trash bins and parking spaces, clearly contribute to improving the quality of life of both residents and visitors (Figure 11f). In addition, seasonal maintenance and landscaping work associated with such initiatives can provide a valuable source of additional income for local residents [132].

4.4.5. Geotourism Function

The significance of Pleistocene glacial geoheritage for geotourism is increasingly acknowledged in recent literature, as shown in the present review. Education plays a crucial role in geotourism, and rock gardens (Figure 11j) are essential for interpreting geoheritage. Active engagement methods enhance both visitor experience [132,154] and educational value. A good example is the lapidarium at Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, which offers workshops, lectures, and self-guided tours for locals and tourists in the Holy Cross Mountains.

In Poland, such initiatives support regional development and natural heritage protection. Well-designed rock gardens promote local culture, aesthetics, and identity, contributing to geo-ethics [141] and sustainable tourism. Although much of Poland’s geological heritage remains undervalued, rock gardens in cities like Kielce [135], Łuków [148], and Pruszków [132] help integrate Earth sciences into urban geotourism (Figure 11k).

Geoheritage is closely linked with cultural heritage, as evidenced by studies such as those by Gordon [151], Machowiak et al. [155], Miechowicz [156,157], Olson and Dowling [158], Pijet-Migoń and Migoń [159] and Reynard and Giusti [160]. This view is also shared by the present author [161], who recognises the educational potential of heritage sites in northern Poland. For example, informal education at the historic granite Church of St. Elizabeth in Dolsko (Figure 11l) allows visitors to learn about both medieval architecture and the region’s glacial history.

Geoparks also offer opportunities for geo-education by combining geology, landscape, and sustainability. Although Poland has only three UNESCO Global Geoparks, none are in areas of the last glaciation. Globally, 20% of such geoparks are located in former glaciated zones (Figure 12), yet few focus specifically on Pleistocene glacial heritage, while another 35 (15.2%) are situated in zones that experienced periglacial conditions during the cold stages of the Pleistocene. On the other hand, the number of papers that discuss the glacial heritage of the Pleistocene in the context of geoparks remains relatively low and grows very slowly when compared to other topics identified in the present literature review (Figure 6). This suggests that future efforts to use geodiversity features that document Pleistocene climate changes are possible. The application of a general workflow described in the present contribution and shown in Figure 13 is advocated here.

5. Conclusions

Elements of geodiversity that record past climates and climate changes, and have significant scientific or other relevance, here termed palaeoclimatic geoheritage, are increasingly used for educational purposes. The conservation of these resources is receiving heightened attention in published scientific literature. Although comprehensive studies of palaeoclimatic geoheritage and its educational applications remain relatively sparse, a steady increase in the number of contributions related to glacial Pleistocene geodiversity has been observed over the last 15 years. A prominent shift from inventorying and evaluating to exploring conservation issues and educational potential indicates that widely distributed landforms and sediments, specifically Pleistocene glacial, glaciofluvial, and periglacial deposits and landscape features, can effectively demonstrate the extent and consequences of past climatic changes to the general public.

Despite the growing body of research discussing the use of Pleistocene geodiversity for scientific communication regarding past climates and climate changes, the variety of educational techniques employed remains limited. Most examples cited in the scientific literature refer to basic methods of knowledge dissemination, such as interpretative panels and geotouristic trails. Although the significance of more advanced educational initiatives, such as visitor centers, is acknowledged, they remain relatively uncommon. The case study shows that, within the regions affected by Pleistocene glaciations, such venues are less prevalent than dinosaur amusement parks.

Widespread geological and geomorphological features that encompass significant areas, such as landforms formed under and at the forefront of an ice sheet, require explanations focused on broader scale rather than local observations and small exposures, necessitating additional interpretation facilities and communication strategies. Moreover, the case study indicates that elements of geodiversity that are common or extensive across large areas are underrepresented in geosite inventories and, as a result, in educational initiatives. Consequently, they experience less intense geotouristic use. This leads to a decreased appreciation of these landforms by the local community, resulting in their degradation within the landscape and a loss of geodiversity.

The study demonstrates that individual geological features resulting from Pleistocene climate changes can serve effectively in communicating palaeoclimatic geodiversity, while simultaneously limiting the breadth of scientific knowledge requiring explanation. Although possible educational uses of Pleistocene glacial geoheritage is exemplified by the use of erratic boulders, other elements of Pleistocene geodiversity can also be used to enhance scientific communication regarding past climatic changes. Among geodiversity features reported in numerous contributions in the present literature review, glacial troughs and cirques are listed most frequently.

To augment the educational potential of selected geodiversity features, their use should be promoted in a broad context, taking into account the existing cultural background and landscape. For instance, rock gardens can significantly enhance the educational potential of erratic glacial boulders, while simultaneously contributing to their conservation, cultivating appreciation within local communities, and fostering innovative geoscientific communication centered on dialogue with the general public and involvement of local stakeholders.