Effects of Mustelid gammaherpesvirus 1 (MusGHV-1) Reactivation in European Badger (Meles meles) Genital Tracts on Reproductive Fitness
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Patterns of MusGHV-1 reactivation in badger genital tracts by comparing prevalence among females culled at the start of the primary mating season with those culled at the end (where many females are pregnant at the beginning, but all will have given birth by the end);
- Differences in MusGHV-1 reactivation between males and females, and between different age groups;
- Effects of MusGHV-1 reactivation on female reproductive success, male testes weight, and sperm abundance;
- The potential for vertical transmission of MusGHV-1 to the foetus via the placenta during gestation, or via the maternal vaginal tract during parturition; and
- The potential for horizontal transmission through semen.
2. Results
2.1. Risk Factors of MusGHV-1 Reactivation in Badgers
2.2. Interactions of Genital MusGHV-1 Reactivation with Body Weight
2.3. Effects of Genital MusGHV-1 Reactivation on Reproductive Fitness
2.4. Potential for Horizontal and Vertical Transmission
2.5. Abnormalities in Female Reproductive Tracts Associated with Genital MusGHV
3. Discussion
3.1. Sex-Specific Seasonal Patterns in Genital MusGHV-1 Reactivation
3.2. Effects of Genital MusGHV-1 Reactivation on Reproductive Fitness
3.3. Genital Lesions
3.4. Vertical Transmission of MusGHV-1
3.5. The Significance of Gammaherpesviruses as Drivers of Wildlife Population Dynamics
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Source of Post-Mortem Badgers
4.2. Assessment of Reproductive Fitness
4.3. Assessing Potential for Vertical and Horizontal Transmission of MusGHV-1
4.4. Histopathological Examination
4.5. MusGHV-1 DNA Detection in Genital Tracts, Semen, and Tissues
4.6. Statistical Analysis
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Group | Estimate | Standard Error | z Value | Adjusted OR | 95% CI of OR | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | −1.1697 | 0.6466 | −1.809 | 0.31 | 0.09–1.1 | 0.07 |
Sex (vs. Female) | ||||||
Male | 1.9023 | 0.6442 | 2.953 | 6.7 | 1.9–23.67 | 0.003 |
Age group | ||||||
Young adults | 1.5527 | 0.7243 | 2.144 | 4.72 | 1.14–19.53 | 0.032 |
Old adults | 1.3507 | 0.7671 | 1.761 | 3.86 | 0.86–17.36 | 0.078 |
Positive n | Total n | Prevalence | 95% CI | Chi-Square Test | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Season | |||||
Winter | 52 | 80 | 65% | 54.1–74.5% | X2 = 0.503, df = 1, p = 0.478 |
Spring | 37 | 64 | 57.80% | 45.6–69.1% | |
Sex | |||||
Male | 53 | 71 | 74.60% | 63.4–83.3% | X2 = 8.741, df = 1, p = 0.003 |
Female | 36 | 73 | 49.30% | 38.2–60.5% | |
Age group a,b | |||||
Yearling | 2 | 2 | 100% | 34.2–100% | X2 = 2.559, df = 1, p = 0.11 (Young:Middle aged) |
Young | 21 | 29 | 72.40% | 54.3–85.3% | X2 = 0.034, df = 1, p = 0.854 (Young:Old) |
Middle aged | 10 | 20 | 50% | 29.9–70.1% | X2 = 1.667, df = 1, p = 0.197 (Middle aged:Old) |
Old | 14 | 20 | 70% | 48.1–85.4% | |
Season:Sex | |||||
Winter:Male | 33 | 40 | 82.50% | 68.1–91.3% | X2 = 9.2857, df = 1, p = 0.002 |
Winter:Female | 19 | 40 | 47.50% | 32.9–62.5% | |
Spring:Male | 20 | 31 | 64.50% | 46.9–78.9% | X2 = 0.6388, df = 1, p = 0.424 |
Spring:Female | 17 | 33 | 51.50% | 35.2–67.5% | |
Sex:Age group a,b | |||||
Male:Yearling | 1 | 1 | 100% | 20.7–100% | p = 0.59 (Young:Middle aged) |
Male:Young | 11 | 12 | 91.60% | 64.6–98.5% | p = 0.553 (Young:Old) |
Male:Middle aged | 9 | 12 | 75% | 46.8–91.1% | p = 1 (Middle aged:Old) |
Male:Old | 7 | 9 | 77.80% | 45.3–93.7% | |
Female:Yearling | 1 | 1 | 100% | 20.7–100% | p = 0.042 (Young:Middle aged) |
Female:Young | 10 | 17 | 58.80% | 36–78.4% | p = 1 (Young:Aged) |
Female:Middle aged | 1 | 8 | 12.50% | 2.2–47.1% | p = 0.059 (Middle age:Old) |
Female:Old | 7 | 11 | 63.60% | 35.4–84.8% |
Reproductive Status | Spring | Winter | Young | Middle Aged | Old | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(+) | Total | % | 95% CI | (+) | Total | % | 95% CI | (+) | (-) | (+) | (-) | (+) | (-) | |
Not pregnant | 11 | 17 | 64.7% | 41.3–82.7% | 8 | 12 | 66.7% | 39.1–86.2% | 6 | 1 | 1 | 3 | - | - |
Pregnant a | - | - | - | - | 4 | 18 | 22.2% | 9.0–45.2% | 0 | 5 | 0 | 3 | 4 | 3 |
Recently pregnant | 7 | 16 | 43.8% | 23.1–66.8% | 3 | 6 | 50.0% | 18.8–81.2% | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Recently pregnant, aborted | - | - | - | - | 4 | 4 | 100.0% | 51.0–100% | 1 | 0 | - | - | 3 | 0 |
Pregnant n a | Total n b | Rate | 95% CI | Chi-Square Test | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Season | |||||
Winter | 24 | 39 | 61.50% | 45.9–75.1% | X2 = 0.3486, df = 1, p = 0.555 |
Spring | 16 | 31 | 51.60% | 34.8–68% | |
Genital MusGHV-1 | |||||
Positive | 14 | 34 | 41.20% | 26.4–57.8% | X2 = 5.672, df = 1, p = 0.017 |
Negative | 26 | 36 | 72.20% | 56–84.2% | |
Season:Genital MusGHV-1 | |||||
Winter:Positive | 7 | 18 | 38.90% | 20.3–61.4% | X2 = 4.0032, df = 1, p = 0.045 |
Winter:Negative | 17 | 21 | 81% | 60–92.3% | |
Spring:Positive | 7 | 16 | 43.80% | 23.1–66.8% | X2 = 0.2972, df = 1, p = 0.586 |
Spring:Negative | 9 | 15 | 60% | 35.7–80.2% |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Tsai, M.-s.; Fogarty, U.; Byrne, A.W.; O’Keeffe, J.; Newman, C.; Macdonald, D.W.; Buesching, C.D. Effects of Mustelid gammaherpesvirus 1 (MusGHV-1) Reactivation in European Badger (Meles meles) Genital Tracts on Reproductive Fitness. Pathogens 2020, 9, 769. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090769
Tsai M-s, Fogarty U, Byrne AW, O’Keeffe J, Newman C, Macdonald DW, Buesching CD. Effects of Mustelid gammaherpesvirus 1 (MusGHV-1) Reactivation in European Badger (Meles meles) Genital Tracts on Reproductive Fitness. Pathogens. 2020; 9(9):769. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090769
Chicago/Turabian StyleTsai, Ming-shan, Ursula Fogarty, Andrew W. Byrne, James O’Keeffe, Chris Newman, David W. Macdonald, and Christina D. Buesching. 2020. "Effects of Mustelid gammaherpesvirus 1 (MusGHV-1) Reactivation in European Badger (Meles meles) Genital Tracts on Reproductive Fitness" Pathogens 9, no. 9: 769. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9090769