Attachment Styles, Emotional Dependence, and Intimate Partner Violence: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Introduction: This systematic review identified studies published between 2015 and 2024 that examined the relationship between attachment styles and emotional dependence in relation to intimate partner violence (IPV). Method: Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, four databases (Web of Science [WoS], Scopus, ProQuest, and PubMed) were searched using a combination of descriptors and Boolean operators. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 30 studies were selected. Results: A significant and predominant association was found between anxious attachment and emotional dependence, both identified as risk factors for the perpetration and victimization of IPV. An elevated prevalence of bidirectional IPV was also observed. Discussion: The findings highlight the interaction between attachment styles, emotional dependence, and other psychological risk factors that may influence both victimization and perpetration of violent behavior in intimate partner relationships. Furthermore, the bidirectional nature of IPV in heterosexual relationships is emphasized, given its association with the increasing prevalence of this phenomenon and the challenge it poses to the prevailing social model that conceptualizes men as aggressors and women as victims. Conclusion: These findings underscore the need for more clearly differentiated and methodologically robust research, as well as for the expansion of comprehensive psychosocial interventions that account for the bidirectional nature of violence and promote secure attachment bonds from a developmental and contextual perspective.

1. Introduction

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a complex phenomenon with multiple dimensions. The World Health Organization (WHO 2012) conceptualizes IPV as the most common type of gender-based violence against women, encompassing physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, as well as coercive control and harassment (Breiding et al. 2015). Additionally, these categories are not mutually exclusive, and research indicates that they frequently coexist. Furthermore, IPV can occur across different types of intimate relationships, including marital relationships, cohabiting or non-cohabiting partnerships, dating, and online dating. They can also vary in terms of severity, frequency, and underlying motivation, whether instrumental or reactive (Pugliese et al. 2023). Moreover, evidence suggests that the risk of physical violence increases when other forms of IPV are also present, affecting both victims and perpetrators (Jennings et al. 2017).

The consequences of IPV extend beyond its direct victims, as it also profoundly affects the individual, familial, and social ecosystem, making it a significant public health concern (WHO 2012). IPV can lead to serious health problems, including complex PTSD, depression, and suicidal ideation, which in turn entail substantial economic costs and increased morbidity and mortality rates (Pugliese et al. 2023).

Statistics indicate that 27% of women aged 15 to 49 have experienced violence from an intimate partner (Yount et al. 2022). Nevertheless, recent research also demonstrates that heterosexual and homosexual men can be victims of IPV (Liu et al. 2021). However, a research gap persists regarding this topic and its broader implications, as decades of scientific inquiry have predominantly considered women to be the sole victims of intimate partner violence (Pimentel and Santelices 2017).

Thus, some studies estimate that the lifetime prevalence of IPV among men ranges from 7.3% to 32% (Nowinski and Bowen 2012). Similarly, one study reported that the prevalence of IPV perpetrated by women against men was 21.7% (Desmarais et al. 2012). These findings suggest that IPV is not exclusively unidirectional and highlight the presence of violence across genders, including female-perpetrated and mutual forms of aggression.

In this context, several studies have identified bidirectional aggression as the most common pattern among the different forms of IPV (Montesino and Gómez 2014), underscoring the need for an integrative and multicausal perspective. Consequently, it is essential to broaden the focus beyond the structural socialization of masculinity in relation to violence against women (Pimentel and Santelices 2017), and to recognize that IPV is not an internal impulse or a fixed psychological trait, but a discursive and socio-material performance that is a phenomenon constituted through language, power dynamics, and social interaction (Belli 2023). From this perspective, IPV requires a more critical examination of how emotional states such as fear, hope, and dependence are not merely experienced internally, but actively shaped and managed within relational contexts. While evidence consistently shows that both men and women engage in physical aggression (Capaldi and Langhinrichsen-Rohling 2012), this bidirectionality does not unfold on a neutral terrain: it operates within a social hierarchy of hegemonic masculinity in which violence frequently serves as a resource to assert or restore dominant gendered identities (Connell and Messerschmidt 2005). Within this structure, the emotional state of women is actively regulated within the relational structure of abuse, fostering learned helplessness, sustaining the cycle of violence (Walker 1979), and maintaining structural subordination even when aggression is bidirectional in form. Therefore, IPV should be understood within an ecological framework, in which relational, individual, community, structural, and discursive factors interact (Heise 1989).

In this way, understanding IPV requires consideration of the psychological mechanisms underlying the formation of emotional bonds. In this regard, attachment theory (Bowlby 1979) provides a useful framework. Attachment style, established in childhood, carries on throughout the lifespan. Longitudinal research has documented significant continuity between childhood attachment styles and those observed in adulthood (Waters et al. 2000). Building on this perspective, Hazan and Shaver (1987) examined attachment theory from childhood to romantic relationships, proposing that individuals replicate in their adult partners the relational patterns acquired with their primary caregivers. They established a classification of adult attachment, which has been widely adopted in subsequent literature (Hazan and Shaver 1987; Allison et al. 2008): secure, preoccupied, dismissing and fearful (Bartholomew and Horowitz 1991).

This implies that attachment styles have important implications for how individuals cope with emotional stress, particularly in the context of relational conflicts.

In this context, numerous studies have found that insecure attachment styles (anxious, avoidant and disorganized) are associated with an increased likelihood of both experiencing and perpetrating violence, identifying them as a risk factor for IPV (Bonache et al. 2019; Doumas et al. 2008).

Regarding attachment-related processes, several studies have linked emotional dependence (ED) to early experiences of insecure attachment, particularly in anxious-ambivalent attachment (Castelló 2005). This attachment style originates from inconsistent or unavailable parental bonds (Bowlby 1979), fostering the development of internal relational models characterized by anxiety, submissiveness, and fear of loss. In adulthood, these patterns may lead to difficulties in ending relationships that could be harmful (Loinaz and Echeburúa, 2012).

Building on this perspective, ED is understood as a pattern of unmet emotional and affective needs that individuals attempt to satisfy maladaptively through their relationships, particularly within romantic partnerships (Urbiola et al. 2017). Consequently, dependent individuals prioritize their partner above their own well-being, due to their fear of loneliness, abandonment, and losing affection, which is experienced as emotional emptiness and a compulsive need for closeness (Castelló 2005). Moreover, Amor et al. (2022) suggest that ED may be shaped by early relationships with caregivers and manifest in adulthood as a pathological anxious-ambivalent attachment style in romantic partnerships.

Moreover, ED is considered a factor contributing to the persistence of violent relationships (Momeñe and Estévez, 2018), as the affective need to maintain the bond can foster strong attachment to the aggressor, making it difficult to leave even in the presence of repeated episodes of abuse (Paiva et al. 2022). However, this dynamic does not apply only to victims, as ED is also observed in men who perpetrate violence against their partners (Barría-Muñoz 2015), serving as a mechanism to maintain control and prevent abandonment (Echeburúa et al. 2023). In this regard, Loinaz and Echeburúa (2012) note that dependent men fear being abandoned and experience intense distress at the prospect of emptiness, which may manifest as coercive behaviors, threats, or aggression as a means of preserving a relationship they perceive as indispensable (Echeburúa and Amor 2016).

On this basis, it is essential to explore the individual psychological factors involved in IPV dynamics, particularly those related to attachment and ED (Rosas-Muñoz et al. 2022). Although research has focused on structural dimensions or prevalence, a gap remains in the analysis of the psychological context in which violence occurs, both for victims and perpetrators (Guermazi et al. 2024). Current models emphasize the multicausal nature of violence, incorporating emotional, affective, and personality dimensions as part of the profile of either the perpetrator or the victim (Guermazi et al. 2024). Accordingly, this review systematically examines empirical evidence published between the years 2015 and 2024 on the relationship between attachment styles and/or ED and their role in intimate partner violence (IPV).

2. Materials and Methods

The review was conducted in accordance with the methodological guidelines established by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA; Page et al. 2021). The protocol was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; Registration No. CRD420261301990). During the identification phase, Boolean operators were combined with key terms previously used in related research, selected based on their theoretical relevance and frequency in the literature.

The electronic databases consulted were Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and ProQuest. Following preliminary exploratory searches, a final search strategy was established, incorporating the following descriptors across the title, abstract and keywords:

(“gender-based violence” OR “intimate partner violence” OR “IPV” OR “partner abuse” OR “heterosexual partner violence” OR “dating violence” OR “domestic violence” OR “family violence” OR “marital violence” OR “conjugal violence” OR “abusive relationships”) AND (“women” OR “female” OR “women victims” OR “female victims” OR “women survivors” OR “female survivors” OR “victimized women” OR “young women” OR “adolescent girls” OR “university students” OR “older women” OR “men perpetrators” OR “male perpetrators” OR “male aggressors” OR “men aggressors” OR “violent men” OR “abusive men” OR “partner abusers” OR “offending men”) AND (“emotional dependence” OR “emotional dependency” OR “affective dependence” OR “romantic attachment” OR “attachment theory” OR “attachment styles” OR “secure attachment” OR “insecure attachment” OR “anxious attachment” OR “avoidant attachment” OR “fearful attachment” OR “preoccupied attachment” OR “disorganized attachment”).

The search included articles published between 1 January 2015 and 31 December 2024, written in English, Spanish, or Portuguese. The inclusion criteria were as follows: (a) original empirical research articles; (b) availability of the full text; (c) use of quantitative methodology; (d) publication in peer-reviewed journals; and (e) explicit examination of the relationship between intimate partner violence and adult attachment patterns and/or emotional dependence.

In addition to the general criteria described above, database-specific filters were applied to each search. In Web of Science, results were restricted to the subject areas of Social Sciences and Psychology, with document type limited to “article” and the keyword “Intimate Partner Violence” included as an additional search term. In Scopus, filters were applied to restrict results to the three specified languages, open access articles only, and a publication window of 2015 to 2024; book chapters were excluded via the document type filter. This slightly broader date range was applied at the database level to avoid potential loss of records at the temporal boundaries of the review period. In PubMed, the scope was restricted to the following study designs: adaptive clinical trial, clinical study, clinical trial, clinical trial protocol, clinical trial phases I–IV, comparative study, controlled clinical trial, equivalence trial, evaluation study, evidence synthesis, multicenter study, observational study, personal narrative, pragmatic clinical trial, randomized controlled trial, and validation study. In ProQuest, subject filters were applied to include only articles on intimate partner violence and domestic violence, in the three specified languages, within a publication window of 2015 to 2024, and with full-text availability.

Accordingly, the following types of documents were excluded from the review: (a) studies published outside the specified time frame; (b) individual case studies, systematic reviews and meta-analyses, psychometric instrument validation studies, editorial articles, conference proceedings, and gray literature; and (c) publications in languages other than those previously specified. At the database level, additional exclusion filters were applied as follows to ensure thematic precision and avoid retrieval of irrelevant records. In Web of Science, articles containing the keywords “Questionnaire,” “Bullying,” “Human Tissue,” or “Beliefs” were excluded, as these terms consistently retrieved records outside the scope of the review; additionally, articles not available in their final published version or without open access were removed. In Scopus, book chapters were excluded via the document type filter. In ProQuest, the following subject categories were excluded because of thematic irrelevance to the review’s objectives: parents and parenting; families and family life; children; childhood; questionnaires; child abuse and neglect; child development; children and youth; adverse childhood experiences; systematic review; public health; pregnancy; health services; substance abuse; drug use; literature reviews; childhood factors; drug abuse; trauma; posttraumatic stress disorder; women’s health; coronaviruses; religion; interpersonal relations; comorbidity; mediation; caregivers; stigma; alcohol abuse; and sampling.

All searches were conducted in February 2025. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the sample was reduced to a total of 238 articles: Web of Science (n = 98), Scopus (n = 88), PubMed (n = 30), and ProQuest (n = 22). Within this set of studies, 29 duplicate records were identified and removed, resulting in a sample of 209 articles. During the initial screening phase, six additional records were excluded for being conference abstracts or editorials, leaving a final sample of 203 articles at this stage of the review process.

Subsequently, during the title and abstract screening phase, studies were considered eligible if they (a) addressed cases involving individuals who had experienced or perpetrated intimate partner violence; (b) focused on the perpetrator and/or the victim; and/or (c) included both women and men in their samples. As a result of this process, 148 records were excluded, yielding a total of 55 studies for full-text review.

Of these 55 studies, 25 were excluded following full-text review for the following reasons: (a) they did not specifically address intimate partner violence; (b) the study variables—emotional dependence and/or attachment patterns—were treated as secondary constructs, without presenting independent, specific, or conclusive results; and (c) they employed qualitative methodology.

As a final result, 30 articles met all the established criteria and were included in the present systematic review (see Figure 1).

3. Results

As part of the review process, Table 1, presents the key analyzed variables, including authorship and year of publication, title, country and continent, sample characteristics, research objectives, instruments used, and main findings.

3.1. Qualitative Analysis

Regarding the analyzed articles, the country with the highest number of publications was Spain (n = 8), followed by Ecuador, Chile, Mexico, and Turkey, each with three publications (n = 3). Next were the United States and Peru, with two articles each (n = 2), and finally, Canada, the United Kingdom, Tunisia, Brazil, Portugal, and Norway, each represented by a single study (n = 1). This distribution indicates a predominance of scientific production from Ibero-America, accounting for 40% of the studies (n = 12), followed by Europe with 36.6% (n = 11). Asia and the Americas were each represented by 10% of the studies (n = 3), while Africa accounted for 3.3% (n = 1).

As for the use of psychometric tools to assess the main study variables, a notable convergence in instrument selection is observed. For measures evaluating IPV, both physical and psychological, the following instruments were most frequently used (listed in order of frequency): the Conflict Tactics Scale—2 (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996), employed in 10 studies; the Cuestionario de Violencia entre Novios, Spanish Version (CUVINO; Rodríguez-Franco et al. 2009, 2010), used in 4 studies; and the Online Abuse in Dating Relationships Scale along with its derivative, the Cyber Dating Abuse Questionnaire (CDAQ; Borrajo et al. 2015). Less frequently, the Psychological Maltreatment of Women Inventory (PMWI) and the Scale of Violence Received, Exercised, and Perceived in Dating Relationships (VREP) were also administered.

Regarding the instruments used to assess attachment in the studies, the Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR; Brennan et al. 1998) scale and its various versions (ECR, ECR-R, ECR-2, ECR-12, ECR-I, ECR-N, among others) were the most prominent, cited in nearly half of the studies (n = 13). This widespread use may be attributed to its ability to differentially assess dimensions such as attachment anxiety and avoidance, which is particularly useful for examining dysfunctional relational dynamics. Other instruments included the Cuestionario de Apego Adulto (CAA; Melero and Cantero 2008), the Adult Attachment Scale adapted by Márquez-Domínguez et al. (2009), and the Young Schema Questionnaire—Short Form 3 (YSQ-SF3; Young 2005), which appeared in one, two, and three studies, respectively.

Regarding the study of ED, the Cuestionario de Dependencia Emocional (CDE; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006) was used in six studies; the Inventario de Relaciones Interpersonales and the Inventario de Dependencias Sentimentales (IRIDS-100; Sirvent Ruiz et al. 2018) were employed in two and three studies, respectively; and the Escala de Dependencia Emocional de la Pareja (SED; Camarillo et al. 2020) was also used in two studies. In addition, ten studies developed ad hoc questionnaires specifically designed to assess ED.

The included studies demonstrate substantial heterogeneity in terms of population samples. In this regard, three fields of study can be identified: academic, community, and clinical contexts. Firstly, within the academic field, a total of 9 studies were exclusively conducted with university students, increasing to eleven when considering studies with broader student samples. Overall, this represents approximately 33% of the included studies, indicating a substantial focus on academic populations.

Second, the largest proportion of studies falls within the community context, comprising 13 studies (43.3%). However, this group is notably heterogeneous. Specifically, 4 studies focused on men as aggressors, with or without legal involvement (e.g., sentencing or formal complaints), while 5 studies examined women as victims of IPV. Additionally, three studies targeted adolescent populations, and only one study included a mixed sample without a specific focus on either victims or perpetrators.

Finally, concerning the clinical field, only 3 studies used a clinical sample. Notably, all of these studies focused exclusively on women victims of IPV.

3.2. Relationship Between Attachment Patterns and/or Emotional Dependence and Intimate Partner Violence

Across the reviewed studies, insecure attachment styles, particularly anxious and fearful-hostile attachment, were consistently identified as significant risk factors for both the perpetration and victimization of IPV. On the other hand, secure attachment was found to operate as a protective relational buffer.

Furthermore, anxious attachment stands out as the most prevalent predictor across multiple dimensions of violence. Its association encompasses psychological aggression, sexual coercion, physical injuries, and cyber victimization, and appearing as a significant predictor in the majority of attachment-focused studies (Gündoğmuş et al. 2023; Erdem et al. 2022; Bonache et al. 2019; Guzmán González et al. 2016; Ørke et al. 2021; Segundo et al. 2022; Pimentel and Santelices 2017; Barría-Muñoz 2015). Moreover, Erdem et al. (2022) found this style to explain 14% of the variance in psychological abuse, 22% in cyber victimization, and 7% in relational violence. This pattern extends to dysfunctional conflict-resolution strategies, where anxious attachment is more strongly associated with maladaptive relational behavior than avoidant attachment (Bonache et al. 2019).

Avoidant attachment shows a more delimited profile. While it did not emerge as a generalizable predictor across violence types, it was specifically linked to physical violence perpetration (Gündoğmuş et al. 2023; Segundo et al. 2022. In bidirectional dynamics, its interaction with a partner’s attachment anxiety was found to intensify aggression (Pollard and Cantos 2021). Furthermore, fearful-hostile attachment, combining avoidant and ambivalent features, showed the strongest association with male perpetration profiles. The results showed that men with this style exhibited 17.62% higher aggression rates, compared to 6.62% for avoidant attachment, relative to those with secure attachment (de la Osa Subtil et al. 2022; Barría-Muñoz 2015; Pimentel and Santelices 2017).

The picture is further complicated by findings on secure attachment. Although it is broadly associated with lower IPV risk and more satisfying intimate relationships (Almeida et al. 2023; del Sarquiz-García et al. 2022; Guzmán González et al. 2016; Barría-Muñoz 2015), Almeida et al. (2023) also found that the majority of IPV victims in their sample presented a secure attachment style. Moreover, Guzmán-Toledo et al. (2021) also identified digital control behaviors among securely attached individuals. This suggests that secure attachment functions as moderating rather than immunizing and that other contextual or individual variables mediate the expression of violence.

Regarding ED, the evidence consistently shows that it is an important risk factor across genders, relationship types, and forms of violence, although with notable differences. Among women, ED is consistently and positively associated with victimization. Women victims of abuse report significantly higher ED levels than non-abused peers (Amor et al. 2022), and this relationship extends to dating relationships. Within dating contexts, ED predicts exposure to sexual, psychological, physical, and instrumental violence, especially when compounded by low self-esteem or prior psychiatric history (Castillo-Gonzáles et al. 2024; Guermazi et al. 2024; Mamani-Benito et al. 2023). Moreover, the developmental dimension also showed significance, as victimized adolescents, particularly girls, showed notably elevated ED compared to non-victimized peers (de la Villa et al. 2017), pointing to early vulnerability implications. From a psychological perspective, ED correlates with depression, anxiety, impulsivity, alexithymia, and reduced life satisfaction in women experiencing IPV (Ponce-Díaz et al. 2019; Rosas-Muñoz et al. 2022).

Among men, the ED profile takes a different form. ED in male perpetrators is expressed through controlling and coercive behaviors aimed at preventing abandonment, with depression as the predominant emotional correlate (Echeburúa et al. 2023). In digital contexts specifically, male ED is positively associated with online cyber-control in young men, while female ED is more strongly linked to digital addiction and exposure to virtual aggression (Moral Jiménez and Prieto 2022).

Beyond gendered patterns, several studies highlight ED as a transversal vulnerability factor. Both victims and perpetrators of psychological violence—regardless of gender, age, or educational level—exhibit elevated ED (Martín and Moral 2019). Furthermore, Momeñe et al. (2022) found that ED co-occurs with intolerance to uncertainty, pessimism, and chronic worry, delineating a broader cognitive-emotional vulnerability profile. Notably, Paiva et al. (2022) demonstrated that the relationship between ED and psychological abuse is bidirectional: each variable directly predicts the other, suggesting a self-reinforcing dynamic that may account for the persistence of violent relationships over time. This is further supported by Macía et al. (2022), who identified ED as a mediating variable linking experienced violence to compulsive behaviors such as spending and sexual addiction. Table 1 is presented below, summarizing all the results discussed above.

Table 1. Studies reviewed that examine the relationship between ED and/or attachment styles in IPV.

Code	Author(s) (Year of Publication)	Sample	Research Objectives	Instruments Used	Main Findings
1.	Almeida et al. (2023) Portugal (Europe)	n = 158 women, victims of intimate relationship violence (IPV) Age range: 18–73 years (M = 43.95).	To examine the relationship between adult attachment, psychopathology and beliefs about intimate relationship violence.	“Experiences in Close Relationships” (ECR; Brennan et al. 1998). “Brief Symptom Inventory” (BSI; Derogatis y Derogatis and Melisaratos 1983). “Scale of Beliefs about Marital Violence” (ECVC; Machado et al. 2007).	The majority of victims exhibited a secure attachment style. Nevertheless, a significant association was found between insecure-anxious attachment and higher levels of psychopathology, as well as beliefs that justify or minimize violence in intimate relationships. These findings reinforce the connection between insecure attachment styles and a higher vulnerability for psychological distress and the normalization of intimate partner violence.
2.	Amor et al. (2022) Spain (Europe)	n = 257, women −56% abused women undergoing treatment (n = 144). −44% non-abused women (n = 113). Age range: 18+ (M = 40.58). Inclusion criteria: - Being over 18 years old - Having (or having recently had) an intimate relationship lasting at least 6 months - Having completed all items of the Emotional Dependence Scale (SED)	To analyze differences between abused and non-abused women in emotional dependence, considering total and subscale scores of the scale. To examine correlations between the dimensions of the SED and clinical and personality variables in the group of abused women. To establish cut-off points to detect the risk of intimate partner violence in women based on emotional dependence.	“Escala de dependencia emocional de la pareja” (SED; Camarillo et al. 2020). “Inventario de ansiedad estado-rasgo” (STAI; Spielberger et al. 1970). “Inventario de depresión de Beck” (BDI-II; Beck et al. 1996). “Escala de autoestima de Rosenberg (RSE; Rosenberg 1965). “Escala de impulsividad de Barratt (BIS-11; Barratt 1995; Patton et al. 1995).	Abused women scored significantly higher than non-abused women on all dimensions and items of the Emotional Dependence Scale (SED), with large effect sizes, especially in the dependence/submission factor. ED in this group was positively associated with depression, anxiety, and impulsivity, and negatively associated with self-esteem, confirming a strong relationship between intimate partner violence and emotional dependence.
3.	Bahadir-Yilmaz and Şahin (2021) Turkey (Asia)	n = 261, women, nursing and midwifery students at a university located in northeastern Turkey. Age range: 18–41 years (M = 20.94). Inclusion criteria: - Being a nursing or midwifery student. - Voluntarily participating in the study and providing written informed consent. - Completing all questionnaires and scales in full. - Attending classes during the dates when the study was conducted.	To investigate the effects of irrational beliefs about romantic relationships and experiences in close relationships on dating violence among nursing and midwifery students.	“Personal Information Form”  “Dating Violence Scale” (DVS; Terzioğlu et al. 2016)” “Irrational Romantic Relationship Beliefs Inventory” (IRRBI; Sarı and Owen 2015). “Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory-1” (ECRI-1; Brennan et al. 1998).	Anxious attachment (β = −3.241), secure attachment (β = −3.119), social time use (β = −0.252), and differentiated thinking (β = −2.788) were predictors of dating violence (p < 0.01). The most important predictors of dating violence were anxious attachment, secure attachment, social time use, and differentiated thinking.
4.	Barría-Muñoz (2015) Chile (Ibero-America)	n = 832, men. n = 732 perpetrators. n = 100 non-abusive men (control group). Age range: 18+ (M = 38.7).	To examine two constructs that have recently been studied in Ibero-American contexts (Spain and Chile) in samples of perpetrators: attachment styles and beliefs related to masculinity and femininity.	“Inventario de creencias en relación a la feminidad y la masculinidad” (IMAFE; Lara-Cantú et al. 1993) “Escala de experiencia en relaciones cercanas” (ECR-2; Brennan et al. 1998) “Escala de tácticas de conflicto” (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996) “Inventario clínico multiaxial de Millon” (MCMI-III; Millon and Davis 1998)	A predominance of anxious/preoccupied (27.8% to 39.7%) and fearful/disorganized (25.6% to 42.3%) attachment styles was observed among perpetrators, in contrast to men without a history of violence, among whom the secure attachment style predominated (66.7%). High and extreme risk perpetrator groups were concentrated in disorganized (16.2%) and anxious (15.1%) attachment styles. In contrast, low-risk individuals were primarily concentrated in the secure attachment style (11.2%).
5.	Bonache et al. (2019) Spain (Europe)	n = 216, heterosexual university students from Spain: 76.4% women. 23.6% men. Age range: 17–44 years (M = 21.40 years).	(1) To better understand the links between adult attachment style, conflict management strategies in romantic relationships, and two forms of intimate partner violence (IPV), namely psychological abuse and sexual coercion. 1.1. To analyze the direct associations between attachment styles, conflict resolution patterns, and IPV victimization. 1.2. To examine the role of self-reported conflict resolution styles and perceived partner conflict resolution styles in explaining the link between insecure attachment and vulnerability to IPV victimization in the form of psychological abuse and sexual coercion.	“Experiences in Close Relationships–Revised Scale” (ECR-R; Fraley et al. 2000). “Conflict Resolution Styles Inventory” (CRSI; Kurdek 1994). “Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse Scale” (SOPAS; Marshall 2001). Sexual coercion victimization Scale (SCVS; Hernández and González-Méndez 2009). Sociodemographic variables.	Anxious and avoidant attachment styles were directly associated with IPV victimization (psychological and sexual). Anxious attachment also showed indirect pathways to both forms of victimization, mediated by the use of destructive conflict resolution strategies, particularly self-reported confrontation and perceived partner confrontation. These strategies were linked to a higher risk of sexual coercion and psychological abuse. In contrast, although avoidant attachment was associated with withdrawal during conflict, no significant indirect pathways to victimization were found. No differences were observed according to gender or relationship status. The findings highlight the role of anxious attachment in conflict escalation processes that increase vulnerability to intimate partner violence.
6.	Castillo-Gonzáles and Andrade (2024) Ecuador (Ibero-America)	n = 3202, university students from three different public universities in Ecuador: −35.7% men. −64.3% women. Age range: 16–48 years (M = 21.50). Inclusion criteria: - Having been in a dating relationship for at least one month, without the relationship being formalized (i.e., no cohabitation or marriage). - Using the Internet, mobile phones, and virtual platforms to communicate with their partners.	To analyze the perpetration and victimization of online dating violence and emotional dependence among men and women.	1.  “Online Abuse in Dating Relationships Scale” (OADRS; Borrajo et al. 2015) 2.  “Emotional Dependence Questionnaire” (EDQ; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006)	Significant gender differences (p < 0.01) were found in both victimization and perpetration of online dating violence. ED predicted online dating violence victimization more strongly in women (17% of explained variance) than in men (7%). It also predicted perpetration, slightly more in men (13%) than in women (9%). Emotional dependence was a stronger predictor of victimization in women than in men, both overall and across specific dimensions.
7.	Castillo-Gonzáles et al. (2024) Ecuador (Ibero-America)	n = 3203, university students: −64.3% women. −35.7% men. Age range: 16–48 years.	Analyze the relationship between dating violence and emotional dependence in young university students in Ecuador, identifying differences by sex.	“Questionnaire on Violence in Couples” (CUVINO, Rodríguez-Franco et al. 2009) “Questionnaire on Emotional Dependence” (EDQ; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006)	Dating violence affects both sexes equally in general terms (90.4% men, 88.1% women; p = 0.051), although differences were observed by type and intensity: men reported more mild violence, while women suffered more psychological and instrumental violence at severe levels (p ≤ 0.05). Women also showed higher emotional dependence (p < 0.001). This dependence is directly related to a higher presence of violence, especially psychological (large effect), sexual (medium), and, to a lesser extent, physical and instrumental. Emotional dependence is a clear risk factor for experiencing dating violence, particularly among women.
8.	Creamer and Hand (2022) United Kingdom (Europe)	n = 58, university students (Glasgow Caledonian University): −48.3% women (n = 28). −51.7% men (n = 30). Age range: 18–35 years (M = 21.99).	Examine the role of participants’ attachment style in prior perpetration of intimate partner stalking (IPS), stalking behaviors, and cognitive and physiological measures.	“Experiences in Close Relationships—Relationship Questionnaire” (ECR-R; Fraley et al. 2011) “Obsessional Relational Intrusion Scale” (ORI-50; Cupach and Spitzberg 2004) “Vignettes de caso sobre ruptura” (Creamer and Hand 2022). Medición del tono vagal—HRV por fotopletismografía (Plews et al. 2017; Porges 2007; Grossman and Taylor 2007) “Stroop Test” (Stroop 1935). Online version (Stoet 2017)	Men were more likely to perpetrate IPS than women. Participants with an anxious attachment style were more likely to have perpetrated IPS, as well as show greater cognitive disruption and heart rate variability (HRV) than those with an avoidant attachment style. They also exhibited a higher frequency of stalking behaviors, reinforcing the association between anxious attachment and intrusive behavior patterns in intimate relationships.
9.	de la Osa Subtil et al. (2022) Spain (Europe)	n = 176 men convicted of partner violence, on probation or serving alternative sentences. Age range: 20–80 years (M = 39).	Determine whether different attachment styles (secure and insecure: preoccupied, dismissive, fearful) and having experienced parental abuse predict adult aggression.	“Questionnaire of sociodemographic data”.  “Aggression Questionnaire” (AQ; Buss and Perry 1992). “Adult Attachment Questionnaire” (CAA; Melero and Cantero 2008)	Childhood abuse is a risk factor for adult violent behavior but does not determine it. Secure attachment functions as a protective factor, insecure styles as risk factors. Fearful-hostile attachment showed the greatest increase in aggression (mean +20.43 points), followed by distant attachment (+7.68), compared with secure attachment.
10.	de la Villa et al. (2017) Spain (Europe)	n = 224 adolescents and young adults (pre-university and university students): −74.3% women (n = 168). −25.7% men (n = 58). Age range: 15–26 (M = 18.2).	Examine the relationship between dating violence, emotional dependence, and self-esteem, including inter-gender and educational level differences.	“Escala de autoestima de Rosenberg (RSE; Rosenberg 1965). “Inventario de Relaciones Interpersonales y Dependencias Sentimentales” (IRIDS-100; Sirvent Ruiz et al. 2018) “Cuestionario de Violencia entre Novios (CUVINO; Rodríguez-Franco et al. 2010).	Emotional dependence is significantly related to dating violence. Victimized adolescents show higher emotional dependence and lower self-esteem, especially in women. Males show accommodation and emotional manipulation. Violence and dependence are more frequent in secondary students than university students, indicating greater vulnerability at younger ages.
11.	Echeburúa et al. (2023) Spain (Europe)	n = 100 men (50 offenders in community outpatient treatment and 50 non-offenders control group). Age range: 18+ (M = 41.87). Inclusion criteria: - Being of legal age (18+) - Having a current romantic partner with a minimum relationship duration of 1 year. - Having fully completed the Partner Emotional Dependence Scale and the sociodemographic variables.	(1) Analyze sociodemographic and emotional dependence differences between men who perpetrate and do not perpetrate partner violence. (2) Examine correlations of partner emotional dependence with relationship length, age, and clinical (anxiety, depression) and personality (anger, self-esteem) variables among offenders.	“Escala de Dependencia Emocional de la Pareja” (SED; Camarillo et al. 2020). “Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg” (EAR; Rosenberg 1965). “Inventario de Depresión de Beck” (BDI-II; Beck et al. 1996). “Inventario de Ansiedad Estado-Rasgo” (STAI; Spielberger 1988).. “Inventario de Expresión de la Ira Estado-Rasgo” (STAXI-2; Spielberger 1988).	A strong association between emotional dependence (ED) and perpetrated violence was found. Offenders scored significantly higher on ED than non-offenders in 18/22 items. In offenders, ED correlated positively with depressive symptoms but not with anxiety, self-esteem, or anger, highlighting its specific role in sustaining violent behavior
12.	Erdem et al. (2022) Turkey (Asia)	n = 300 university students (two universities: Mar negro and Anatolia Central). Age range: 18–28 year (M = 20.78).	(1) Adapt the Cyber Dating Violence Scale (CDVS) to Turkish. (2) Investigate relationships between attachment styles and cyber-dating violence among university students.	“Personal Information Form” “Cyber Dating Violence Scale” (CDVE; Morelli et al. 2017) “Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory-I” (ECRI-I; Brennan et al. 1998)	Women scored higher on relational abuse and avoidant attachment. Anxious attachment was the main predictor of psychological abuse and victimization in cyber context (14% and 22% variance, respectively) and also predicted relational victimization (7% variance). Avoidant attachment predicted only psychological abuse (5% variance).
13.	Guermazi et al. (2024) Tunisia (Africa)	n = 120, women, victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) who sought care at the Psychiatric Emergency Department in Sfax. Age range: 19–58 years (M = 37.27). Inclusion criteria: - Reported a case of intimate partner violence. - Underwent a psychiatric evaluation by court order. - Provided informed oral consent.	Describe sociodemographic, clinical, and relational profiles of women victims of IPV, assessing emotional abuse, emotional dependence, alexithymia, and self-esteem	“Emotional Abuse Scale” (EAS; Jacobson et al. 1996). “Emotional Dependence Questionnaire” (EDQ; Henderson and Cunningham 1993) “Toronto Alexithymia Scale” (TAS-20; Bagby et al. 1994; Taylor et al. 2000). “Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale” (RSES; Rosenberg 1965).	75.8% of the women were victims of severe emotional abuse, and 38.3% showed emotional dependence on their partners. A significant correlation was found between emotional abuse and emotional dependence. In addition, alexithymia (present in 59.2% of participants) was significantly associated with emotional dependence (p = 0.004). Higher levels of emotional dependence were related to an earlier onset of violence (p < 0.001) and a history of psychiatric disorders (p = 0.02). 83.3% of the women had low self-esteem, which was also associated with indicators of violence. The data indicate a direct relationship between intimate partner violence and higher emotional dependence.
14.	Gündoğmuş et al. (2023) Turkey (Asia)	n = 75 women attending outpatient psychiatric services and suffered IPV in the last year. Age range: 18–65 (M = 37.61).	To investigate the relationship between Intimate Partner Violence (victimization in the intimate partner (IPV-V) and perpetration in the intimate partner (IPV-P)) with attachment styles, schema domains, and personality beliefs in a group of women seeking treatment.	“Sociodemographic Assessment Form”  “Young Schema Questionnaire- Short Form 3” (YSQSF3; Young 2005). “Conflict Tactics Scale -2” (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996). “Personality Belief Questionnaire-SF” (PBQ—SF; Butler et al. 2007). “Experiences in Close Relationships-II” (ECR-II; y Fraley et al. (2000). “Beck Depression Inventory” (BDI; Beck et al. 1961). “Beck Anxiety Inventory” (BAI; Beck et al. 1988).	Anxious attachment style showed a significant and direct association with most forms of intimate partner violence, both in perpetration and victimization. In perpetration, it was associated with psychological aggression (β = 0.47; 22% of the variance), physical aggression (β = 0.42; included in a model explaining 32% of the variance), sexual coercion (β = 0.29; 27%), and injury (β = 0.38; 30%). In victimization, it was also associated with psychological violence (β = 0.42; 20%), physical violence (β = 0.30; 17%), and injury (β = 0.28; 19%). Avoidant attachment was not related to any CTS-2 subscale in the correlational analyses, although it did appear in regression models for physical aggression (perpetration: β = 0.22; victimization: β = 0.19). No effects were found for the negotiation subscales. Finally, schema domains and personality beliefs did not show a mediating effect on the relationship between attachment styles and intimate partner violence.
15.	Guzmán González et al. (2016) Chile (Ibero-America)	n = 744, university students, who have or had at least one romantic relationship lasting one month or more in the past twelve months, divided into two equally sized subgroups (n = 372) based on whether they had experienced physical violence at least once in the past year or had not experienced physical violence in the past year. −45.1% men (n = 334). −54.9% women (n = 407). −3 students did not specify their gender. Age range: 18–28 years (M = 21.37)	To evaluate the association between attachment styles and the experience of physical violence in romantic or dating relationships among university students.	“Experiences in Close Relationships” (ECR; Brennan et al. 1998). “Conflict Tactics Scale” (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996).	It was found a significant relationship between attachment styles and the presence/absence of physical violence (χ2 (2) = 14.02, p < 0.05, ϕ = 0.14) There is a significant association between the two variables (attachment style and experience of physical violence), with the anxious-preoccupied attachment style being predominant among those who experienced violence, and the secure attachment style being predominant among those who did not.
16.	Guzmán-Toledo et al. (2021) Mexico (Ibero-America)	n = 47, young mexican adults, non-students: - n = 35 women. - n = 12 men. Age range: 18–30 years, Inclusion criteria: - Have or had at least one romantic relationship for at least a month during the COVID–19 pandemic lockdown.	To determine the relationship between attachment styles and control exercised and/or experienced within cyber dating violence (CDV) in the romantic relationships of young Mexican non-students.	“Questionnaire on sociodemographic data and information regarding the romantic relationship.”  “Cyber Dating Abuse Questionnaire” (CDAQ; Borrajo et al. 2015) “Escala de apego adulto” (Márquez-Domínguez et al., 2009)	A positive and significant association was found between secure attachment and control exerted, both in the total sample and among men, indicating a direct link between attachment style and cyber dating violence. Additionally, bidirectionality was observed in control behaviors (control exerted ↔ control experienced). Men exhibited higher levels of anxious attachment, whereas women showed higher levels of secure attachment.
17.	Laforte et al. (2023) Canada (North America)	n = 253 adolescents. - 126 heterosexual adolescent couples. Age range: 14–19 years (M = 17.65). Inclusion criteria: - At least one member of the couple had to be between 14 and 19 years old, and no participant could be older than 24 years. - Couples had to be currently in a relationship lasting at least 1 month and have access to the Internet.	(1) To examine, using a dual approach, the associations between romantic attachment and the perpetration and victimization of digital dating violence (DDV) during adolescence. (1.1) Specifically, to assess whether the attachment dimensions (anxiety and avoidance) of both partners are related to their own patterns of direct aggression and monitoring/control in DDV, as well as those of their partner.	“Experiences in Close Relationships Scale—short form” (ECR-12; Wei et al. 2007). “Cyber Dating Abuse Questionnaire” (CDAQ; Borrajo et al. 2015.	96% of couples reported at least one incident of digital control in the last year, and 34% reported digital aggression. Both victimization and perpetration in digital aggression were associated with higher levels of anxiety in attachment, about oneself and in the relationship both for men and women. In digital monitoring, victimization was more strongly linked to the partner’s attachment anxiety, whereas perpetration was associated with both the individual’s and the partner’s attachment anxiety in girls, and primarily with the individual’s attachment anxiety in boys. No significant associations were found with avoidant attachment.
18.	Macía et al. (2022) Ecuador (Ibero-America)	n = 1533 adolescents: −53.9% male (n = 826). −46.1% female (n = 707). Age range: 14–18 years (M = 15.76). Inclusion criteria: - Having had at least one dating relationship lasting at least 1 month.	To analyze the relationship between emotional dependence, addictive behaviors, and remaining in violent relationships during adolescence.	“Scale of Emotional Dependence” in adolescent dating (DEN; Urbiola et al. 2014). “Scale of Violence Received, Exercised, and Perceived in Dating Relationships of Young People and Adolescents” (VREP; Urbiola-Pérez et al. 2020). “Impulse control disorders”. (MULTICAGE CAD 4; Pedrero et al. 2007).	Emotional dependence was significantly correlated with violence received (r = 0.37, p < 0.001). Compulsive spending was strongly associated with emotional dependence (r = 0.21, p < 0.001), while sex addiction was more strongly associated with violence received (r = 0.18, p < 0.001). Violence received mediated the relationship between emotional dependence and addictive behaviors.
19.	Mamani-Benito et al. (2023) Peru (Ibero-America)	n = 180 women, Peruvian entrepreneurs. Age range: 19–69 years (M = 43.21). Inclusion criteria: - Beneficiaries of the Peruvian Agency for Development and Assistance Resources (ADRA). - Currently in a romantic relationship. - Voluntary participation. - Signed informed consent. Exclusion criteria: - Women who communicated only in their native language (Quechua or Aymara).	To determine how emotional dependence and self-esteem predict psychological violence in Peruvian women entrepreneurs.	“Psychological Maltreatment of Women Inventory” (PMWI; Tolman 1999). “Escala de Dependencia Emocional” (CDE; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006). “Inventario de Autoestima de Stanley Coopersmith–Forma C” (Coopersmith 1959).	A direct correlation was found between high emotional dependence scores and high levels of psychological violence. Psychological violence was significantly associated with self-esteem and emotional dependence. Additionally, education level, marital status, self-esteem, and emotional dependence were identified as predictors of psychological violence. Specifically, low self-esteem and high emotional dependence predicted higher levels of psychological violence in Peruvian women entrepreneurs.
20.	Martín and Moral (2019) Spain (Europe)	n = 396 Spanish adolescents and young adults: 66.16% women (n = 262) 33.84% men (n = 134) Age range: 15–30 years (M = 19.36)	To analyze the relationship between emotional dependence and psychological abuse (both as victim and perpetrator) in a youth population.	“Inventario de Relaciones Interpersonales y Dependencias Sentimentales (IRIDS-100; Sirvent Ruiz et al. 2018). “Cuestionario de Violencia de Novios Víctima Agresor” (CUVINO-VA; Rodríguez-Díaz et al. 2017).	Young people who were psychologically victimized and those who perpetrated this type of violence had higher average levels of emotional dependence. Emotional dependence was not related to gender, age, or education level, whereas psychological abuse was related to age and education level.
21.	Momeñe et al. (2022) Spain (Europe)	n = 258 adults: −77.1% women −22.9% men Age range: 18–67 years (M = 32.63)	1. Analyze the possible relationship between emotional dependence (ED), intolerance of uncertainty, worry tendency, and pessimism. 2. Evaluate the mediating role of intolerance of uncertainty in the relationship between ED and received physical and psychological partner violence. 3. Examine whether worry tendency mediates the relationship between ED and received physical and psychological partner violence. 4. Assess the mediating role of pessimism in the relationship between ED and received physical and psychological partner violence.	“Cuestionario de Dependencia Emocional” (CDE; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006). “Escala revisada de Tácticas para la Resolución de Conflictos” (CTS2-Revised Conflicts Tactics Scale-2; Straus et al. 1996). “Escala de Intolerancia a la Incertidumbre” (EII; Guzmán González et al. 2016) “Cuestionario de Preocupación” (PSWQ-11; Sandín et al. 2009).	A positive and statistically significant relationship was found between ED and partner violence, particularly psychological and physical violence. ED was directly associated with psychological violence received, intolerance of uncertainty, worry tendency, and pessimism. A significant relationship was observed between ED and physical violence, partially explained (6.67%) by intolerance of uncertainty. ED was significantly linked to both physical and psychological violence, with worry tendency explaining 6.67% of the relationship with physical violence and 4.54% of the relationship with psychological violence.
22.	Moral Jiménez and Prieto (2022) Spain (Europe)	n = 627, university students from the Principality of Asturias (Spain): −58.3% women −41.7% men Age range: 18–26 years (M = 21.27)	Determine whether there is a relationship between emotional dependence (ED) and partner control through social networks in romantic relationships among young people.	“Risk of Addiction to Social Networks and Internet for Adolescents Scale” (ERA-RSI; Peris et al. 2018) “Cyber-Violence in Adolescent Couples Scale” (Cib-VPA; Cava and Buelga 2018) “Inventory of Interpersonal Relations and Sentimental Dependencies” (IRIDS-100; Sirvent Ruiz et al. 2018)	Statistically significant positive relationships were found between ED, cyber-control, and online aggression victimization. Male participants exerted more online control over their partners, while young women with ED showed a higher risk of technology addiction. A clear link was established between ED and cyber-abuse in young couples.
23.	Ørke et al. (2021) Norway (Europe)	n = 154 women Age range: 20–69 years (M = 39.85) Inclusion criteria: - 18 years or older - Previous contact with services related to violence or family issues (e.g., police, family counseling, women’s shelters, or the ATV center) - Currently in or recently involved in an intimate relationship lasting at least 6 months - Experienced or not intimate partner violence (IPV) in the last 3 years	1. Investigate differences in attachment between women victimized and non-victimized by IPV, as well as between women victimized by a single partner versus multiple partners. 2. Explore whether victimization by multiple partners increased the likelihood of certain attachment characteristics, adjusting for childhood adversity and sociodemographic variables.	“Sociodemographic and contextual variables”  “Experiences in Close Relationships” (ECR; Brennan et al. 1998; Fraley et al. 2000). Versión para Noruega (ECR-N) de Olssøn et al. (2010) “UngVold2015” (Mossige and Stefansen 2016) “Childhood Trauma Questionnaire” (CTQ-SF; Bernstein et al. 2003; Dovran et al. 2013)	Compared to non-victimized women, women victimized by IPV were more likely to exhibit high levels of attachment avoidance. Among victimized women, those who experienced IPV from multiple partners were more likely to show higher attachment anxiety than those victimized by a single partner. After adjusting for childhood adversities, childhood sexual abuse emerged as an independent risk factor for IPV. Childhood emotional abuse mediated the association between attachment anxiety and IPV victimization, particularly in the context of multiple-partner victimization.
24.	Paiva et al. (2022) Brasil (Ibero-America)	n = 222, women −53.3% in dating relationships −44.1% married Age range: 18–66 years (M = 27.9)	1. Understand the relationships between psychological abuse, self-esteem, and emotional dependence in women during the pandemic, from the perspective of traumatic bonding theory. 2. Analyze the sociodemographic profile and characteristics of the participants.	“Sociodemographic questionnaire”  “Psychological Abuse in Partner Relationships Scale” (EAPA-P; Porrúa-García et al. 2016). “Specific Spouse Dependence Scale for Women” (EDEC-M; Rathus and O’Leary 1997). “Single-Item Self-Esteem Scale” (SISES; Robins et al. 2001).	Psychological abuse was associated with higher emotional dependence (particularly exclusive dependence and anxious attachment) and lower self-esteem. The relationship is bidirectional: abuse predicts emotional dependence (partially mediated by low self-esteem), and emotional dependence predicts abuse (also partially mediated by self-esteem). The mediating effect of self-esteem was significant only in women under 34 years; in women older than 34, the relationship between abuse and emotional dependence was direct.
25.	Pimentel and Santelices (2017) Chile (Ibero-America)	n = 40, men n = 20: men convicted of intimate partner violence n = 20: men without a history of partner violence Age range: 30–50 years (M = 39)	To determine whether there are differences in adult attachment and mentalization between men convicted of partner violence and men with no history of partner violence.	“Sociodemographic interview”  “Use Disorders Identification Test, (AUDIT; OMS). “Conflict Tactics Scales-2” (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996) “Escala de Experiencia en Relaciones Cercanas” (ERC; Brennan et al. 1998). “Test Reading the Mind in the Eyes” (Baron-Cohen et al. 1997, 2001).	Men with a history of partner violence showed a higher prevalence of insecure attachment (60% vs. 30%, p = 0.004), with fearful attachment being particularly prominent, while the non-violent group predominantly exhibited preoccupied attachment (p = 0.031; Fisher p = 0.049). The violent group also showed significantly higher attachment anxiety (p = 0.004), with no differences in avoidance. These results indicate a clear association between insecure attachment and intimate partner violence, especially linked to anxiety in the affective bond. No differences were found in mentalization abilities (p = 0.547).
26.	Pollard and Cantos (2021) United States (North America)	n = 416 individuals, 206 heterosexual couples of Hispanic origin −85.1% (n = 177) composed of two partners identifying as Hispanic −12% (n = 25) with only one partner identifying as Hispanic −2.9% (n = 6) with neither partner identifying as Hispanic Age range: 18+ years (M = 21.21)	To examine associations between insecure attachment and the perpetration of physical intimate partner violence (IPV) in men and women, and to analyze whether these associations are exacerbated when involved with a partner exhibiting contrasting attachment needs and high levels of emotional dysregulation and impulsivity. The study also investigated whether the emotional dysregulation of both partners interacted to predict partner violence.	“Demographic survey”  “Experiences in Close Relationships Revised Questionnaire” (ECR-R; Fraley et al. 2000). “Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale” (DERS; Gratz and Roemer 2004) “Physical Assault Scale of the Conflict Tactics Scale Revised” (CTS2; Straus et al. 1996)	Attachment anxiety was significantly associated with IPV, particularly in women, predicting both self-reported and partner-reported violence (7–10% of variance). In men, both attachment anxiety and avoidance predicted self-reported violence (8–10%). Female attachment anxiety moderated the relationship between male attachment avoidance and violence (16%). Overall, attachment styles and their interaction are clearly linked to IPV as an expression or consequence of emotional dependence, especially in contexts marked by attachment anxiety.
27.	Ponce-Díaz et al. (2019) Peru (Ibero-America)	n = 1211 women, psychology university students - 54% without intimate partner violence (IPV) - 46% with IPV Age range: 18+ years (M = 21.7) Inclusion criteria: - Having had at least one heterosexual romantic relationship	To examine the relationship between emotional dependence (ED) and life satisfaction in a group of psychology students from public and private universities in Lima, both victims and non-victims of IPV.	“Cuestionario de Violencia entre Novios” (CUVINO; Rodríguez-Franco et al. 2010) “Inventario de Dependencia Emocional” (IDE; Aiquipa Tello 2012, 2015) “Escala de Satisfacción con la Vida” (SWLS; Diener et al. 1985)	Among women experiencing IPV, ED was negatively associated with life satisfaction, with significant correlations for the total scale (r = −0.24; p < 0.005) and across all dimensions (r = −0.128 to −0.26; p < 0.001). Women with IPV showed significantly higher levels of ED compared to women without IPV. In the non-violent group, correlations between ED and life satisfaction were lower (r = −0.11; p < 0.005) and significant in only three of seven dimensions.
28.	Rosas-Muñoz et al. (2022) Mexico (Ibero-America)	n = 76 women Age range: 20–50 years Inclusion criteria: - Registered patients - In a stable romantic relationship (>6 months) - Signed informed consent - No psychological or psychiatric history - Not pregnant or in the puerperium	To determine the correlation between emotional dependence (ED) and intimate partner violence (IPV) in women registered at primary care services.	“Encuesta de Ortega Ceballos, et al.” (2007). “Cuestionario de dependencia emocional” (CDE; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006).	A positive correlation was found between emotional dependence (ED) and intimate partner violence (IPV), with Spearman’s rho of 0.67 (p ≤ 0.01), indicating a strong association between the two variables. There is a high correlation between ED and IPV in women, confirming that emotional dependence acts as a risk factor for experiencing partner violence.
29.	del Sarquiz-García et al. (2022) Mexico (Ibero-America)	n = 230, Mexican youth −73.5% women (n = 169) −26.5% men (n = 61) Age range: 15–25 years (M = 20) Inclusion criteria: - Currently in, or having been in, a romantic relationship lasting at least one month during COVID-19 lockdown. - Not living with the partner.	Examine the relationship between adult attachment, relationship satisfaction, and cyber dating violence among youth during the COVID-19 pandemic.	“Sociodemographic and relationship data”  “Adult Attachment Scale” (Márquez-Domínguez et al. 2009). “Relationship Assessment Scale” (RAS; Hendrick 1988). “Cyber Dating Abuse Questionnaire” (CDAQ; Borrajo et al. 2015);	Sex differences emerged in the association between attachment and violence. In women, anxious attachment was associated with perpetrated aggression, while avoidant attachment was linked to both experienced and perpetrated aggression, showing that insecure attachment styles relate to higher levels of partner violence. Secure attachment had a protective effect, negatively associated with experienced aggression and avoidance, and positively related to relationship satisfaction. In men, secure attachment was related to relationship satisfaction and avoidance, and anxious attachment was associated with younger age. No direct links between attachment and violence were found, although control behaviors were related to aggression.
30.	Segundo et al. (2022) United States (North America)	n = 360 young Hispanic women, undergraduate students at a Hispanic-Serving Institution in the southern United States Age range: 18–51 years (M = 21.9) Inclusion criteria: 1. Currently in, or previously involved in, a romantic relationship lasting at least one month.	1. Examine whether risk factors commonly associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) are related to women’s perpetration of physical IPV and their victimization among young Hispanic women. 2. Analyze how emotional dysregulation, impulsivity, and attachment style exacerbate these relationships. 3. Investigate how these associations vary according to the type of self-reported physical violence against a romantic partner.	“Relationship and Demographic Items”  “Revised Conflicts Tactics Scale” (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996) “Experiences in Close Relationships Revised questionnaire” (ECR-R; Brennan et al. 1998) “Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale” (DERS-18; Victor, Klonsky 2016).	Women in the bidirectional violence group reported the highest levels of both perpetration and victimization. Anxious and avoidant attachment were significantly associated with higher levels of physical IPV perpetration and victimization, particularly in cases of bidirectional violence. Avoidant attachment predicted both perpetration and victimization, while anxious attachment predicted victimization. Both insecure styles also mediated the effects of parental victimization and exposure to interparental violence on partner violence. Additionally, emotional dysregulation and impulsivity amplified the relationship between insecure attachment and IPV, especially for those with anxious attachment.

Table 1. Studies reviewed that examine the relationship between ED and/or attachment styles in IPV.

Code	Author(s) (Year of Publication)	Sample	Research Objectives	Instruments Used	Main Findings
1.	Almeida et al. (2023) Portugal (Europe)	n = 158 women, victims of intimate relationship violence (IPV) Age range: 18–73 years (M = 43.95).	To examine the relationship between adult attachment, psychopathology and beliefs about intimate relationship violence.	“Experiences in Close Relationships” (ECR; Brennan et al. 1998). “Brief Symptom Inventory” (BSI; Derogatis y Derogatis and Melisaratos 1983). “Scale of Beliefs about Marital Violence” (ECVC; Machado et al. 2007).	The majority of victims exhibited a secure attachment style. Nevertheless, a significant association was found between insecure-anxious attachment and higher levels of psychopathology, as well as beliefs that justify or minimize violence in intimate relationships. These findings reinforce the connection between insecure attachment styles and a higher vulnerability for psychological distress and the normalization of intimate partner violence.
2.	Amor et al. (2022) Spain (Europe)	n = 257, women −56% abused women undergoing treatment (n = 144). −44% non-abused women (n = 113). Age range: 18+ (M = 40.58). Inclusion criteria: - Being over 18 years old - Having (or having recently had) an intimate relationship lasting at least 6 months - Having completed all items of the Emotional Dependence Scale (SED)	To analyze differences between abused and non-abused women in emotional dependence, considering total and subscale scores of the scale. To examine correlations between the dimensions of the SED and clinical and personality variables in the group of abused women. To establish cut-off points to detect the risk of intimate partner violence in women based on emotional dependence.	“Escala de dependencia emocional de la pareja” (SED; Camarillo et al. 2020). “Inventario de ansiedad estado-rasgo” (STAI; Spielberger et al. 1970). “Inventario de depresión de Beck” (BDI-II; Beck et al. 1996). “Escala de autoestima de Rosenberg (RSE; Rosenberg 1965). “Escala de impulsividad de Barratt (BIS-11; Barratt 1995; Patton et al. 1995).	Abused women scored significantly higher than non-abused women on all dimensions and items of the Emotional Dependence Scale (SED), with large effect sizes, especially in the dependence/submission factor. ED in this group was positively associated with depression, anxiety, and impulsivity, and negatively associated with self-esteem, confirming a strong relationship between intimate partner violence and emotional dependence.
3.	Bahadir-Yilmaz and Şahin (2021) Turkey (Asia)	n = 261, women, nursing and midwifery students at a university located in northeastern Turkey. Age range: 18–41 years (M = 20.94). Inclusion criteria: - Being a nursing or midwifery student. - Voluntarily participating in the study and providing written informed consent. - Completing all questionnaires and scales in full. - Attending classes during the dates when the study was conducted.	To investigate the effects of irrational beliefs about romantic relationships and experiences in close relationships on dating violence among nursing and midwifery students.	“Personal Information Form”  “Dating Violence Scale” (DVS; Terzioğlu et al. 2016)” “Irrational Romantic Relationship Beliefs Inventory” (IRRBI; Sarı and Owen 2015). “Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory-1” (ECRI-1; Brennan et al. 1998).	Anxious attachment (β = −3.241), secure attachment (β = −3.119), social time use (β = −0.252), and differentiated thinking (β = −2.788) were predictors of dating violence (p < 0.01). The most important predictors of dating violence were anxious attachment, secure attachment, social time use, and differentiated thinking.
4.	Barría-Muñoz (2015) Chile (Ibero-America)	n = 832, men. n = 732 perpetrators. n = 100 non-abusive men (control group). Age range: 18+ (M = 38.7).	To examine two constructs that have recently been studied in Ibero-American contexts (Spain and Chile) in samples of perpetrators: attachment styles and beliefs related to masculinity and femininity.	“Inventario de creencias en relación a la feminidad y la masculinidad” (IMAFE; Lara-Cantú et al. 1993) “Escala de experiencia en relaciones cercanas” (ECR-2; Brennan et al. 1998) “Escala de tácticas de conflicto” (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996) “Inventario clínico multiaxial de Millon” (MCMI-III; Millon and Davis 1998)	A predominance of anxious/preoccupied (27.8% to 39.7%) and fearful/disorganized (25.6% to 42.3%) attachment styles was observed among perpetrators, in contrast to men without a history of violence, among whom the secure attachment style predominated (66.7%). High and extreme risk perpetrator groups were concentrated in disorganized (16.2%) and anxious (15.1%) attachment styles. In contrast, low-risk individuals were primarily concentrated in the secure attachment style (11.2%).
5.	Bonache et al. (2019) Spain (Europe)	n = 216, heterosexual university students from Spain: 76.4% women. 23.6% men. Age range: 17–44 years (M = 21.40 years).	(1) To better understand the links between adult attachment style, conflict management strategies in romantic relationships, and two forms of intimate partner violence (IPV), namely psychological abuse and sexual coercion. 1.1. To analyze the direct associations between attachment styles, conflict resolution patterns, and IPV victimization. 1.2. To examine the role of self-reported conflict resolution styles and perceived partner conflict resolution styles in explaining the link between insecure attachment and vulnerability to IPV victimization in the form of psychological abuse and sexual coercion.	“Experiences in Close Relationships–Revised Scale” (ECR-R; Fraley et al. 2000). “Conflict Resolution Styles Inventory” (CRSI; Kurdek 1994). “Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse Scale” (SOPAS; Marshall 2001). Sexual coercion victimization Scale (SCVS; Hernández and González-Méndez 2009). Sociodemographic variables.	Anxious and avoidant attachment styles were directly associated with IPV victimization (psychological and sexual). Anxious attachment also showed indirect pathways to both forms of victimization, mediated by the use of destructive conflict resolution strategies, particularly self-reported confrontation and perceived partner confrontation. These strategies were linked to a higher risk of sexual coercion and psychological abuse. In contrast, although avoidant attachment was associated with withdrawal during conflict, no significant indirect pathways to victimization were found. No differences were observed according to gender or relationship status. The findings highlight the role of anxious attachment in conflict escalation processes that increase vulnerability to intimate partner violence.
6.	Castillo-Gonzáles and Andrade (2024) Ecuador (Ibero-America)	n = 3202, university students from three different public universities in Ecuador: −35.7% men. −64.3% women. Age range: 16–48 years (M = 21.50). Inclusion criteria: - Having been in a dating relationship for at least one month, without the relationship being formalized (i.e., no cohabitation or marriage). - Using the Internet, mobile phones, and virtual platforms to communicate with their partners.	To analyze the perpetration and victimization of online dating violence and emotional dependence among men and women.	1.  “Online Abuse in Dating Relationships Scale” (OADRS; Borrajo et al. 2015) 2.  “Emotional Dependence Questionnaire” (EDQ; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006)	Significant gender differences (p < 0.01) were found in both victimization and perpetration of online dating violence. ED predicted online dating violence victimization more strongly in women (17% of explained variance) than in men (7%). It also predicted perpetration, slightly more in men (13%) than in women (9%). Emotional dependence was a stronger predictor of victimization in women than in men, both overall and across specific dimensions.
7.	Castillo-Gonzáles et al. (2024) Ecuador (Ibero-America)	n = 3203, university students: −64.3% women. −35.7% men. Age range: 16–48 years.	Analyze the relationship between dating violence and emotional dependence in young university students in Ecuador, identifying differences by sex.	“Questionnaire on Violence in Couples” (CUVINO, Rodríguez-Franco et al. 2009) “Questionnaire on Emotional Dependence” (EDQ; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006)	Dating violence affects both sexes equally in general terms (90.4% men, 88.1% women; p = 0.051), although differences were observed by type and intensity: men reported more mild violence, while women suffered more psychological and instrumental violence at severe levels (p ≤ 0.05). Women also showed higher emotional dependence (p < 0.001). This dependence is directly related to a higher presence of violence, especially psychological (large effect), sexual (medium), and, to a lesser extent, physical and instrumental. Emotional dependence is a clear risk factor for experiencing dating violence, particularly among women.
8.	Creamer and Hand (2022) United Kingdom (Europe)	n = 58, university students (Glasgow Caledonian University): −48.3% women (n = 28). −51.7% men (n = 30). Age range: 18–35 years (M = 21.99).	Examine the role of participants’ attachment style in prior perpetration of intimate partner stalking (IPS), stalking behaviors, and cognitive and physiological measures.	“Experiences in Close Relationships—Relationship Questionnaire” (ECR-R; Fraley et al. 2011) “Obsessional Relational Intrusion Scale” (ORI-50; Cupach and Spitzberg 2004) “Vignettes de caso sobre ruptura” (Creamer and Hand 2022). Medición del tono vagal—HRV por fotopletismografía (Plews et al. 2017; Porges 2007; Grossman and Taylor 2007) “Stroop Test” (Stroop 1935). Online version (Stoet 2017)	Men were more likely to perpetrate IPS than women. Participants with an anxious attachment style were more likely to have perpetrated IPS, as well as show greater cognitive disruption and heart rate variability (HRV) than those with an avoidant attachment style. They also exhibited a higher frequency of stalking behaviors, reinforcing the association between anxious attachment and intrusive behavior patterns in intimate relationships.
9.	de la Osa Subtil et al. (2022) Spain (Europe)	n = 176 men convicted of partner violence, on probation or serving alternative sentences. Age range: 20–80 years (M = 39).	Determine whether different attachment styles (secure and insecure: preoccupied, dismissive, fearful) and having experienced parental abuse predict adult aggression.	“Questionnaire of sociodemographic data”.  “Aggression Questionnaire” (AQ; Buss and Perry 1992). “Adult Attachment Questionnaire” (CAA; Melero and Cantero 2008)	Childhood abuse is a risk factor for adult violent behavior but does not determine it. Secure attachment functions as a protective factor, insecure styles as risk factors. Fearful-hostile attachment showed the greatest increase in aggression (mean +20.43 points), followed by distant attachment (+7.68), compared with secure attachment.
10.	de la Villa et al. (2017) Spain (Europe)	n = 224 adolescents and young adults (pre-university and university students): −74.3% women (n = 168). −25.7% men (n = 58). Age range: 15–26 (M = 18.2).	Examine the relationship between dating violence, emotional dependence, and self-esteem, including inter-gender and educational level differences.	“Escala de autoestima de Rosenberg (RSE; Rosenberg 1965). “Inventario de Relaciones Interpersonales y Dependencias Sentimentales” (IRIDS-100; Sirvent Ruiz et al. 2018) “Cuestionario de Violencia entre Novios (CUVINO; Rodríguez-Franco et al. 2010).	Emotional dependence is significantly related to dating violence. Victimized adolescents show higher emotional dependence and lower self-esteem, especially in women. Males show accommodation and emotional manipulation. Violence and dependence are more frequent in secondary students than university students, indicating greater vulnerability at younger ages.
11.	Echeburúa et al. (2023) Spain (Europe)	n = 100 men (50 offenders in community outpatient treatment and 50 non-offenders control group). Age range: 18+ (M = 41.87). Inclusion criteria: - Being of legal age (18+) - Having a current romantic partner with a minimum relationship duration of 1 year. - Having fully completed the Partner Emotional Dependence Scale and the sociodemographic variables.	(1) Analyze sociodemographic and emotional dependence differences between men who perpetrate and do not perpetrate partner violence. (2) Examine correlations of partner emotional dependence with relationship length, age, and clinical (anxiety, depression) and personality (anger, self-esteem) variables among offenders.	“Escala de Dependencia Emocional de la Pareja” (SED; Camarillo et al. 2020). “Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg” (EAR; Rosenberg 1965). “Inventario de Depresión de Beck” (BDI-II; Beck et al. 1996). “Inventario de Ansiedad Estado-Rasgo” (STAI; Spielberger 1988).. “Inventario de Expresión de la Ira Estado-Rasgo” (STAXI-2; Spielberger 1988).	A strong association between emotional dependence (ED) and perpetrated violence was found. Offenders scored significantly higher on ED than non-offenders in 18/22 items. In offenders, ED correlated positively with depressive symptoms but not with anxiety, self-esteem, or anger, highlighting its specific role in sustaining violent behavior
12.	Erdem et al. (2022) Turkey (Asia)	n = 300 university students (two universities: Mar negro and Anatolia Central). Age range: 18–28 year (M = 20.78).	(1) Adapt the Cyber Dating Violence Scale (CDVS) to Turkish. (2) Investigate relationships between attachment styles and cyber-dating violence among university students.	“Personal Information Form” “Cyber Dating Violence Scale” (CDVE; Morelli et al. 2017) “Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory-I” (ECRI-I; Brennan et al. 1998)	Women scored higher on relational abuse and avoidant attachment. Anxious attachment was the main predictor of psychological abuse and victimization in cyber context (14% and 22% variance, respectively) and also predicted relational victimization (7% variance). Avoidant attachment predicted only psychological abuse (5% variance).
13.	Guermazi et al. (2024) Tunisia (Africa)	n = 120, women, victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) who sought care at the Psychiatric Emergency Department in Sfax. Age range: 19–58 years (M = 37.27). Inclusion criteria: - Reported a case of intimate partner violence. - Underwent a psychiatric evaluation by court order. - Provided informed oral consent.	Describe sociodemographic, clinical, and relational profiles of women victims of IPV, assessing emotional abuse, emotional dependence, alexithymia, and self-esteem	“Emotional Abuse Scale” (EAS; Jacobson et al. 1996). “Emotional Dependence Questionnaire” (EDQ; Henderson and Cunningham 1993) “Toronto Alexithymia Scale” (TAS-20; Bagby et al. 1994; Taylor et al. 2000). “Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale” (RSES; Rosenberg 1965).	75.8% of the women were victims of severe emotional abuse, and 38.3% showed emotional dependence on their partners. A significant correlation was found between emotional abuse and emotional dependence. In addition, alexithymia (present in 59.2% of participants) was significantly associated with emotional dependence (p = 0.004). Higher levels of emotional dependence were related to an earlier onset of violence (p < 0.001) and a history of psychiatric disorders (p = 0.02). 83.3% of the women had low self-esteem, which was also associated with indicators of violence. The data indicate a direct relationship between intimate partner violence and higher emotional dependence.
14.	Gündoğmuş et al. (2023) Turkey (Asia)	n = 75 women attending outpatient psychiatric services and suffered IPV in the last year. Age range: 18–65 (M = 37.61).	To investigate the relationship between Intimate Partner Violence (victimization in the intimate partner (IPV-V) and perpetration in the intimate partner (IPV-P)) with attachment styles, schema domains, and personality beliefs in a group of women seeking treatment.	“Sociodemographic Assessment Form”  “Young Schema Questionnaire- Short Form 3” (YSQSF3; Young 2005). “Conflict Tactics Scale -2” (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996). “Personality Belief Questionnaire-SF” (PBQ—SF; Butler et al. 2007). “Experiences in Close Relationships-II” (ECR-II; y Fraley et al. (2000). “Beck Depression Inventory” (BDI; Beck et al. 1961). “Beck Anxiety Inventory” (BAI; Beck et al. 1988).	Anxious attachment style showed a significant and direct association with most forms of intimate partner violence, both in perpetration and victimization. In perpetration, it was associated with psychological aggression (β = 0.47; 22% of the variance), physical aggression (β = 0.42; included in a model explaining 32% of the variance), sexual coercion (β = 0.29; 27%), and injury (β = 0.38; 30%). In victimization, it was also associated with psychological violence (β = 0.42; 20%), physical violence (β = 0.30; 17%), and injury (β = 0.28; 19%). Avoidant attachment was not related to any CTS-2 subscale in the correlational analyses, although it did appear in regression models for physical aggression (perpetration: β = 0.22; victimization: β = 0.19). No effects were found for the negotiation subscales. Finally, schema domains and personality beliefs did not show a mediating effect on the relationship between attachment styles and intimate partner violence.
15.	Guzmán González et al. (2016) Chile (Ibero-America)	n = 744, university students, who have or had at least one romantic relationship lasting one month or more in the past twelve months, divided into two equally sized subgroups (n = 372) based on whether they had experienced physical violence at least once in the past year or had not experienced physical violence in the past year. −45.1% men (n = 334). −54.9% women (n = 407). −3 students did not specify their gender. Age range: 18–28 years (M = 21.37)	To evaluate the association between attachment styles and the experience of physical violence in romantic or dating relationships among university students.	“Experiences in Close Relationships” (ECR; Brennan et al. 1998). “Conflict Tactics Scale” (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996).	It was found a significant relationship between attachment styles and the presence/absence of physical violence (χ2 (2) = 14.02, p < 0.05, ϕ = 0.14) There is a significant association between the two variables (attachment style and experience of physical violence), with the anxious-preoccupied attachment style being predominant among those who experienced violence, and the secure attachment style being predominant among those who did not.
16.	Guzmán-Toledo et al. (2021) Mexico (Ibero-America)	n = 47, young mexican adults, non-students: - n = 35 women. - n = 12 men. Age range: 18–30 years, Inclusion criteria: - Have or had at least one romantic relationship for at least a month during the COVID–19 pandemic lockdown.	To determine the relationship between attachment styles and control exercised and/or experienced within cyber dating violence (CDV) in the romantic relationships of young Mexican non-students.	“Questionnaire on sociodemographic data and information regarding the romantic relationship.”  “Cyber Dating Abuse Questionnaire” (CDAQ; Borrajo et al. 2015) “Escala de apego adulto” (Márquez-Domínguez et al., 2009)	A positive and significant association was found between secure attachment and control exerted, both in the total sample and among men, indicating a direct link between attachment style and cyber dating violence. Additionally, bidirectionality was observed in control behaviors (control exerted ↔ control experienced). Men exhibited higher levels of anxious attachment, whereas women showed higher levels of secure attachment.
17.	Laforte et al. (2023) Canada (North America)	n = 253 adolescents. - 126 heterosexual adolescent couples. Age range: 14–19 years (M = 17.65). Inclusion criteria: - At least one member of the couple had to be between 14 and 19 years old, and no participant could be older than 24 years. - Couples had to be currently in a relationship lasting at least 1 month and have access to the Internet.	(1) To examine, using a dual approach, the associations between romantic attachment and the perpetration and victimization of digital dating violence (DDV) during adolescence. (1.1) Specifically, to assess whether the attachment dimensions (anxiety and avoidance) of both partners are related to their own patterns of direct aggression and monitoring/control in DDV, as well as those of their partner.	“Experiences in Close Relationships Scale—short form” (ECR-12; Wei et al. 2007). “Cyber Dating Abuse Questionnaire” (CDAQ; Borrajo et al. 2015.	96% of couples reported at least one incident of digital control in the last year, and 34% reported digital aggression. Both victimization and perpetration in digital aggression were associated with higher levels of anxiety in attachment, about oneself and in the relationship both for men and women. In digital monitoring, victimization was more strongly linked to the partner’s attachment anxiety, whereas perpetration was associated with both the individual’s and the partner’s attachment anxiety in girls, and primarily with the individual’s attachment anxiety in boys. No significant associations were found with avoidant attachment.
18.	Macía et al. (2022) Ecuador (Ibero-America)	n = 1533 adolescents: −53.9% male (n = 826). −46.1% female (n = 707). Age range: 14–18 years (M = 15.76). Inclusion criteria: - Having had at least one dating relationship lasting at least 1 month.	To analyze the relationship between emotional dependence, addictive behaviors, and remaining in violent relationships during adolescence.	“Scale of Emotional Dependence” in adolescent dating (DEN; Urbiola et al. 2014). “Scale of Violence Received, Exercised, and Perceived in Dating Relationships of Young People and Adolescents” (VREP; Urbiola-Pérez et al. 2020). “Impulse control disorders”. (MULTICAGE CAD 4; Pedrero et al. 2007).	Emotional dependence was significantly correlated with violence received (r = 0.37, p < 0.001). Compulsive spending was strongly associated with emotional dependence (r = 0.21, p < 0.001), while sex addiction was more strongly associated with violence received (r = 0.18, p < 0.001). Violence received mediated the relationship between emotional dependence and addictive behaviors.
19.	Mamani-Benito et al. (2023) Peru (Ibero-America)	n = 180 women, Peruvian entrepreneurs. Age range: 19–69 years (M = 43.21). Inclusion criteria: - Beneficiaries of the Peruvian Agency for Development and Assistance Resources (ADRA). - Currently in a romantic relationship. - Voluntary participation. - Signed informed consent. Exclusion criteria: - Women who communicated only in their native language (Quechua or Aymara).	To determine how emotional dependence and self-esteem predict psychological violence in Peruvian women entrepreneurs.	“Psychological Maltreatment of Women Inventory” (PMWI; Tolman 1999). “Escala de Dependencia Emocional” (CDE; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006). “Inventario de Autoestima de Stanley Coopersmith–Forma C” (Coopersmith 1959).	A direct correlation was found between high emotional dependence scores and high levels of psychological violence. Psychological violence was significantly associated with self-esteem and emotional dependence. Additionally, education level, marital status, self-esteem, and emotional dependence were identified as predictors of psychological violence. Specifically, low self-esteem and high emotional dependence predicted higher levels of psychological violence in Peruvian women entrepreneurs.
20.	Martín and Moral (2019) Spain (Europe)	n = 396 Spanish adolescents and young adults: 66.16% women (n = 262) 33.84% men (n = 134) Age range: 15–30 years (M = 19.36)	To analyze the relationship between emotional dependence and psychological abuse (both as victim and perpetrator) in a youth population.	“Inventario de Relaciones Interpersonales y Dependencias Sentimentales (IRIDS-100; Sirvent Ruiz et al. 2018). “Cuestionario de Violencia de Novios Víctima Agresor” (CUVINO-VA; Rodríguez-Díaz et al. 2017).	Young people who were psychologically victimized and those who perpetrated this type of violence had higher average levels of emotional dependence. Emotional dependence was not related to gender, age, or education level, whereas psychological abuse was related to age and education level.
21.	Momeñe et al. (2022) Spain (Europe)	n = 258 adults: −77.1% women −22.9% men Age range: 18–67 years (M = 32.63)	1. Analyze the possible relationship between emotional dependence (ED), intolerance of uncertainty, worry tendency, and pessimism. 2. Evaluate the mediating role of intolerance of uncertainty in the relationship between ED and received physical and psychological partner violence. 3. Examine whether worry tendency mediates the relationship between ED and received physical and psychological partner violence. 4. Assess the mediating role of pessimism in the relationship between ED and received physical and psychological partner violence.	“Cuestionario de Dependencia Emocional” (CDE; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006). “Escala revisada de Tácticas para la Resolución de Conflictos” (CTS2-Revised Conflicts Tactics Scale-2; Straus et al. 1996). “Escala de Intolerancia a la Incertidumbre” (EII; Guzmán González et al. 2016) “Cuestionario de Preocupación” (PSWQ-11; Sandín et al. 2009).	A positive and statistically significant relationship was found between ED and partner violence, particularly psychological and physical violence. ED was directly associated with psychological violence received, intolerance of uncertainty, worry tendency, and pessimism. A significant relationship was observed between ED and physical violence, partially explained (6.67%) by intolerance of uncertainty. ED was significantly linked to both physical and psychological violence, with worry tendency explaining 6.67% of the relationship with physical violence and 4.54% of the relationship with psychological violence.
22.	Moral Jiménez and Prieto (2022) Spain (Europe)	n = 627, university students from the Principality of Asturias (Spain): −58.3% women −41.7% men Age range: 18–26 years (M = 21.27)	Determine whether there is a relationship between emotional dependence (ED) and partner control through social networks in romantic relationships among young people.	“Risk of Addiction to Social Networks and Internet for Adolescents Scale” (ERA-RSI; Peris et al. 2018) “Cyber-Violence in Adolescent Couples Scale” (Cib-VPA; Cava and Buelga 2018) “Inventory of Interpersonal Relations and Sentimental Dependencies” (IRIDS-100; Sirvent Ruiz et al. 2018)	Statistically significant positive relationships were found between ED, cyber-control, and online aggression victimization. Male participants exerted more online control over their partners, while young women with ED showed a higher risk of technology addiction. A clear link was established between ED and cyber-abuse in young couples.
23.	Ørke et al. (2021) Norway (Europe)	n = 154 women Age range: 20–69 years (M = 39.85) Inclusion criteria: - 18 years or older - Previous contact with services related to violence or family issues (e.g., police, family counseling, women’s shelters, or the ATV center) - Currently in or recently involved in an intimate relationship lasting at least 6 months - Experienced or not intimate partner violence (IPV) in the last 3 years	1. Investigate differences in attachment between women victimized and non-victimized by IPV, as well as between women victimized by a single partner versus multiple partners. 2. Explore whether victimization by multiple partners increased the likelihood of certain attachment characteristics, adjusting for childhood adversity and sociodemographic variables.	“Sociodemographic and contextual variables”  “Experiences in Close Relationships” (ECR; Brennan et al. 1998; Fraley et al. 2000). Versión para Noruega (ECR-N) de Olssøn et al. (2010) “UngVold2015” (Mossige and Stefansen 2016) “Childhood Trauma Questionnaire” (CTQ-SF; Bernstein et al. 2003; Dovran et al. 2013)	Compared to non-victimized women, women victimized by IPV were more likely to exhibit high levels of attachment avoidance. Among victimized women, those who experienced IPV from multiple partners were more likely to show higher attachment anxiety than those victimized by a single partner. After adjusting for childhood adversities, childhood sexual abuse emerged as an independent risk factor for IPV. Childhood emotional abuse mediated the association between attachment anxiety and IPV victimization, particularly in the context of multiple-partner victimization.
24.	Paiva et al. (2022) Brasil (Ibero-America)	n = 222, women −53.3% in dating relationships −44.1% married Age range: 18–66 years (M = 27.9)	1. Understand the relationships between psychological abuse, self-esteem, and emotional dependence in women during the pandemic, from the perspective of traumatic bonding theory. 2. Analyze the sociodemographic profile and characteristics of the participants.	“Sociodemographic questionnaire”  “Psychological Abuse in Partner Relationships Scale” (EAPA-P; Porrúa-García et al. 2016). “Specific Spouse Dependence Scale for Women” (EDEC-M; Rathus and O’Leary 1997). “Single-Item Self-Esteem Scale” (SISES; Robins et al. 2001).	Psychological abuse was associated with higher emotional dependence (particularly exclusive dependence and anxious attachment) and lower self-esteem. The relationship is bidirectional: abuse predicts emotional dependence (partially mediated by low self-esteem), and emotional dependence predicts abuse (also partially mediated by self-esteem). The mediating effect of self-esteem was significant only in women under 34 years; in women older than 34, the relationship between abuse and emotional dependence was direct.
25.	Pimentel and Santelices (2017) Chile (Ibero-America)	n = 40, men n = 20: men convicted of intimate partner violence n = 20: men without a history of partner violence Age range: 30–50 years (M = 39)	To determine whether there are differences in adult attachment and mentalization between men convicted of partner violence and men with no history of partner violence.	“Sociodemographic interview”  “Use Disorders Identification Test, (AUDIT; OMS). “Conflict Tactics Scales-2” (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996) “Escala de Experiencia en Relaciones Cercanas” (ERC; Brennan et al. 1998). “Test Reading the Mind in the Eyes” (Baron-Cohen et al. 1997, 2001).	Men with a history of partner violence showed a higher prevalence of insecure attachment (60% vs. 30%, p = 0.004), with fearful attachment being particularly prominent, while the non-violent group predominantly exhibited preoccupied attachment (p = 0.031; Fisher p = 0.049). The violent group also showed significantly higher attachment anxiety (p = 0.004), with no differences in avoidance. These results indicate a clear association between insecure attachment and intimate partner violence, especially linked to anxiety in the affective bond. No differences were found in mentalization abilities (p = 0.547).
26.	Pollard and Cantos (2021) United States (North America)	n = 416 individuals, 206 heterosexual couples of Hispanic origin −85.1% (n = 177) composed of two partners identifying as Hispanic −12% (n = 25) with only one partner identifying as Hispanic −2.9% (n = 6) with neither partner identifying as Hispanic Age range: 18+ years (M = 21.21)	To examine associations between insecure attachment and the perpetration of physical intimate partner violence (IPV) in men and women, and to analyze whether these associations are exacerbated when involved with a partner exhibiting contrasting attachment needs and high levels of emotional dysregulation and impulsivity. The study also investigated whether the emotional dysregulation of both partners interacted to predict partner violence.	“Demographic survey”  “Experiences in Close Relationships Revised Questionnaire” (ECR-R; Fraley et al. 2000). “Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale” (DERS; Gratz and Roemer 2004) “Physical Assault Scale of the Conflict Tactics Scale Revised” (CTS2; Straus et al. 1996)	Attachment anxiety was significantly associated with IPV, particularly in women, predicting both self-reported and partner-reported violence (7–10% of variance). In men, both attachment anxiety and avoidance predicted self-reported violence (8–10%). Female attachment anxiety moderated the relationship between male attachment avoidance and violence (16%). Overall, attachment styles and their interaction are clearly linked to IPV as an expression or consequence of emotional dependence, especially in contexts marked by attachment anxiety.
27.	Ponce-Díaz et al. (2019) Peru (Ibero-America)	n = 1211 women, psychology university students - 54% without intimate partner violence (IPV) - 46% with IPV Age range: 18+ years (M = 21.7) Inclusion criteria: - Having had at least one heterosexual romantic relationship	To examine the relationship between emotional dependence (ED) and life satisfaction in a group of psychology students from public and private universities in Lima, both victims and non-victims of IPV.	“Cuestionario de Violencia entre Novios” (CUVINO; Rodríguez-Franco et al. 2010) “Inventario de Dependencia Emocional” (IDE; Aiquipa Tello 2012, 2015) “Escala de Satisfacción con la Vida” (SWLS; Diener et al. 1985)	Among women experiencing IPV, ED was negatively associated with life satisfaction, with significant correlations for the total scale (r = −0.24; p < 0.005) and across all dimensions (r = −0.128 to −0.26; p < 0.001). Women with IPV showed significantly higher levels of ED compared to women without IPV. In the non-violent group, correlations between ED and life satisfaction were lower (r = −0.11; p < 0.005) and significant in only three of seven dimensions.
28.	Rosas-Muñoz et al. (2022) Mexico (Ibero-America)	n = 76 women Age range: 20–50 years Inclusion criteria: - Registered patients - In a stable romantic relationship (>6 months) - Signed informed consent - No psychological or psychiatric history - Not pregnant or in the puerperium	To determine the correlation between emotional dependence (ED) and intimate partner violence (IPV) in women registered at primary care services.	“Encuesta de Ortega Ceballos, et al.” (2007). “Cuestionario de dependencia emocional” (CDE; Lemos Hoyos and Londoño Arredondo 2006).	A positive correlation was found between emotional dependence (ED) and intimate partner violence (IPV), with Spearman’s rho of 0.67 (p ≤ 0.01), indicating a strong association between the two variables. There is a high correlation between ED and IPV in women, confirming that emotional dependence acts as a risk factor for experiencing partner violence.
29.	del Sarquiz-García et al. (2022) Mexico (Ibero-America)	n = 230, Mexican youth −73.5% women (n = 169) −26.5% men (n = 61) Age range: 15–25 years (M = 20) Inclusion criteria: - Currently in, or having been in, a romantic relationship lasting at least one month during COVID-19 lockdown. - Not living with the partner.	Examine the relationship between adult attachment, relationship satisfaction, and cyber dating violence among youth during the COVID-19 pandemic.	“Sociodemographic and relationship data”  “Adult Attachment Scale” (Márquez-Domínguez et al. 2009). “Relationship Assessment Scale” (RAS; Hendrick 1988). “Cyber Dating Abuse Questionnaire” (CDAQ; Borrajo et al. 2015);	Sex differences emerged in the association between attachment and violence. In women, anxious attachment was associated with perpetrated aggression, while avoidant attachment was linked to both experienced and perpetrated aggression, showing that insecure attachment styles relate to higher levels of partner violence. Secure attachment had a protective effect, negatively associated with experienced aggression and avoidance, and positively related to relationship satisfaction. In men, secure attachment was related to relationship satisfaction and avoidance, and anxious attachment was associated with younger age. No direct links between attachment and violence were found, although control behaviors were related to aggression.
30.	Segundo et al. (2022) United States (North America)	n = 360 young Hispanic women, undergraduate students at a Hispanic-Serving Institution in the southern United States Age range: 18–51 years (M = 21.9) Inclusion criteria: 1. Currently in, or previously involved in, a romantic relationship lasting at least one month.	1. Examine whether risk factors commonly associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) are related to women’s perpetration of physical IPV and their victimization among young Hispanic women. 2. Analyze how emotional dysregulation, impulsivity, and attachment style exacerbate these relationships. 3. Investigate how these associations vary according to the type of self-reported physical violence against a romantic partner.	“Relationship and Demographic Items”  “Revised Conflicts Tactics Scale” (CTS-2; Straus et al. 1996) “Experiences in Close Relationships Revised questionnaire” (ECR-R; Brennan et al. 1998) “Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale” (DERS-18; Victor, Klonsky 2016).	Women in the bidirectional violence group reported the highest levels of both perpetration and victimization. Anxious and avoidant attachment were significantly associated with higher levels of physical IPV perpetration and victimization, particularly in cases of bidirectional violence. Avoidant attachment predicted both perpetration and victimization, while anxious attachment predicted victimization. Both insecure styles also mediated the effects of parental victimization and exposure to interparental violence on partner violence. Additionally, emotional dysregulation and impulsivity amplified the relationship between insecure attachment and IPV, especially for those with anxious attachment.

Table 2. Risk of Bias.

Study Code	Item (Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale Case–Control Studies)
	ACD	RC	SSC	DC	Comp.	AE	SMACC	NRR	Total
1	✰	-	-	-	✰	✰	-	-	3
2	✰	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	-	5
3	✰	-	✰	✰	✰✰	✰	✰	-	7
4	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰✰	✰	✰	-	8
5	✰	-	-	✰	✰✰	✰	✰	-	6
6	✰	-	-	-	✰	✰	✰	-	4
7	✰	-	-	-	✰	✰	✰	-	4
8	✰	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	-	6
9	✰	-	-	-	✰	✰	✰	-	4
10	✰	-	-	-	✰	✰	✰	-	4
11	✰	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	-	4
12	✰	-	✰	✰	✰✰	✰	✰	-	6
13	✰	-	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	7
14	✰	-	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	5
15	✰	✰	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	-	5
16	✰	-	-	-	✰	✰	✰	-	8
17	✰	✰	-	-	✰✰	✰	✰	✰	4
18	-	✰	-	-	✰✰	✰	✰	✰	7
19	-	-	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	7
20	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	5
21	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	7
22	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	7
23	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	-	7
24	-	-	-	-	-	✰	✰	-	2
25	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	-	6
26	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	-	6
27	-	-	✰	✰	-	✰	✰	-	5
28	-	-	✰	✰	-	✰	✰	-	5
29	-	-	-	-	-	✰	✰	-	2
30	-	-	✰	✰	✰	✰	✰	-	6

Note: A study can be given a maximum of one star for each numbered item within the Selection and Exposure categories. A maximum of two stars can be given for Comparability. ACD: adequacy of case definition; RC: representativeness of the cases; SSC: selection of controls; DC: definition of controls; Comp.: comparability; AE: ascertainment of exposure; SMACC: same method of ascertainment for cases and controls; NRR: non-response rate.

presents the risk-of-bias evaluation conducted using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS). Scores ranged from 2 to 8 stars across the 30 included studies, with a mean of 5.5 and a median of 6.0, reflecting a moderate overall methodological quality. Among the main strengths identified, 93.3% of the studies provided clear and operational case definitions, and 80% (n = 24) showed consistency in the instruments used to measure key variables, particularly the ECR and its versions for attachment, the CTS-2 for IPV, and validated scales for emotional dependence (SED, CDE, IRIDS-100).

However, several methodological limitations warrant caution in the interpretation of findings. These limitations should be understood in relation to the type of sample studied—academic, community, or clinical—as the definition of “case” and the associated risk profile differ substantially across these contexts. First, 30% of studies lacked a control group, limiting causal inference. Second, 86.7% relied on non-probabilistic sampling, restricting the representativeness and comparability of results. Third, 73.3% of studies did not report dropout rates, which is particularly relevant in IPV research given the high likelihood of attrition related to fear, emotional exhaustion, or reluctance to disclose. Fourth, 36.7% showed poor matching between cases and controls—a limitation that is difficult to reconcile with the strength of case definition noted above, and that may introduce selection bias. Finally, only 43.3% of studies controlled for confounding variables through statistical adjustment. Key covariates that were frequently uncontrolled include prior trauma history, childhood maltreatment, comorbid psychopathology, socioeconomic status, and relationship duration—all of which are theoretically relevant to both attachment patterns and emotional dependence in the context of IPV.

4. Discussion

4.1. Attachment and Intimate Partner Violence

Of the total reviewed studies, those solely focusing on the relationship between attachment and IPV (n = 16) generally agree that dysfunctional attachment styles—particularly anxious-ambivalent attachment—are consistently associated with violent patterns.

Anxious attachment emerges as the style most consistently linked to violence, both perpetrated and experienced, appearing as a relevant predictor in 12 of the 16 reviewed studies (Gündoğmuş et al. 2023; Erdem et al. 2022; Bahadir-Yilmaz and Şahin 2021; Bonache et al. 2019; Segundo et al. 2022; Barría-Muñoz 2015; Pimentel and Santelices 2017; de la Osa Subtil et al. 2022; Guzmán González et al. 2016; Ørke et al. 2021; Guzmán-Toledo et al. 2021; del Sarquiz-García et al. 2022). Its association with violence comprises psychological aggression, sexual coercion, digital control, and intrusive monitoring. This widespread presence suggests that the fear of abandonment and the constant need for validation characteristic of this attachment style constitute a relational risk factor that intensifies conflicts (Bowlby 1988; Mayseless 1991; Hazan and Shaver 1987; Allison et al. 2008).

Furthermore, anxious attachment is associated with the use of dysfunctional conflict-resolution strategies (Bonache et al. 2019) and a higher incidence of multiple victimization (Ørke et al. 2021), which in turn increases both the perpetration of and vulnerability to violence. In this regard, Tussey et al. (2021) observed a direct relationship between this attachment style and violence perpetrated by young women, a finding supported by the meta-analysis conducted by Velotti et al. (2020). These observations can be considered robust from a risk-of-bias perspective, as studies such as Guzmán González et al. (2016) and Ørke et al. (2021) feature precisely defined profiles. This allows for a rigorous analysis of attachment patterns and their relationship with violent behaviors.

However, avoidant attachment was significantly associated with violence in only 4 of the 16 reviewed studies (Gündoğmuş et al. 2023; Segundo et al. 2022; del Sarquiz-García et al. 2022; de la Osa Subtil et al. 2022), in terms of both perpetration and victimization. While Segundo et al. (2022) linked it to bidirectional violent dynamics, del Sarquiz-García et al. (2022) associated it with both experienced and perpetrated aggression among women. This lower level of consistency may be explained by the tendency of individuals with avoidant attachment to suppress emotions and avoid confrontation (Hazan and Shaver 1987), which may hinder the direct expression of violence, but not necessarily absent.

With respect to the perpetration of violence, fearful-hostile attachment is identified as the style with the highest prevalence among male aggressors (Barría-Muñoz 2015; Pimentel and Santelices 2017; de la Osa Subtil et al. 2022). This attachment style combines characteristics of avoidant and ambivalent attachment, manifesting in emotional dysregulation, affective ambivalence, and heightened reactivity to situations perceived as threatening. These findings are consistent with earlier research by Babcock et al. (2004) and Allison et al. (2008), who linked fearful attachment to the use of coercive strategies motivated by fear of abandonment.

Secure attachment, in turn, generally emerges as a protective factor against violence, associated with more satisfying intimate relationships (Barría-Muñoz 2015; Pimentel and Santelices 2017; de la Osa Subtil et al. 2022; del Sarquiz-García et al. 2022; Guzmán González et al. 2016; Almeida et al. 2023). Nevertheless, despite its protective role, instances of digital control and victimization have also been identified among individuals with this attachment style (Guzmán-Toledo et al. 2021; Almeida et al. 2023). This suggests that, although secure attachment functions as a protective factor, it is not the sole mediator in the emergence of intimate partner violence.

In general, insecure attachment styles are identified as moderators of the effects of prior experiences of violence, particularly in cases involving parental violence (de la Osa Subtil et al. 2022; Ørke et al. 2021). This suggests that attachment interacts with early environmental experiences and shapes relational patterns in adulthood and subsequent relationships, as originally proposed by Bowlby (1979).

4.2. Emotional Dependence and Intimate Partner Violence

Following the analysis of studies examining the connection between ED and IPV (n = 14), ED is consistently identified as a cross-cutting risk factor, particularly for psychological and sexual violence, and more broadly for physical, instrumental, and digital violence.

In this sense, at least 10 of the 14 analyzed studies (Amor et al. 2022; Echeburúa et al. 2023; Castillo-Gonzáles et al. 2024; Guermazi et al. 2024; de la Villa et al. 2017; Martín and Moral 2019; Momeñe et al. 2022; Macía et al. 2022; Moral Jiménez and Prieto 2022; Rosas-Muñoz et al. 2022) maintain that ED is significantly associated with victimization, particularly among women, and with a profile of heightened emotional vulnerability. The strength of this relationship is especially evident in studies such as Rosas-Muñoz et al. (2022), which reported a strong correlation (ρ = 0.67) between ED and intimate partner violence. Similarly, Castillo-Gonzáles et al. (2024) found that ED significantly increases women’s exposure to psychological and sexual violence, particularly when combined with additional risk factors such as low self-esteem or depressive symptoms. Extending these findings, Momeñe et al. (2022) incorporated cognitive variables—such as intolerance of uncertainty and pessimism—into the explanation of the sustained association between ED and psychological violence.

Along similar lines, ED is associated with dysfunctional affective states such as depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and impulsivity (Amor et al. 2022; Guermazi et al. 2024; Mamani-Benito et al. 2023; Ponce-Díaz et al. 2019; Momeñe et al. 2022; Macía et al. 2022; de la Villa et al. 2017; Martín and Moral 2019; Paiva et al. 2022). These findings are consistent with Castillo Hidalgo, who reported that ED in intimate relationships is closely linked to psychological violence, depressive symptomatology, and limited cognitive coping strategies. Furthermore, the results of Mamani-Benito et al. (2023) and Paiva et al. (2022) suggest that ED is not only a consequence of abuse but also a predisposing condition, particularly in the presence of low self-esteem. This issue is especially relevant, as it highlights the potential bidirectional feedback dynamic, consistent with the contribution of Amor and Echeburúa (2010), who argue that the more abuse a woman experiences, the stronger her perceived need for her partner becomes, thereby increasing her dependence on the abusive relationship.

Nevertheless, these conclusions should be interpreted with caution, as the risk-of-bias assessment revealed that more than two-thirds of the studies did not report attrition rates, which is an aspect particularly relevant in research on emotional dependence. In this type of research, subjective involvement, fear of retaliation, emotional exhaustion, or reluctance to participate may lead to high but unreported dropout rates, as suggested in studies such as Creamer and Hand (2022) and Guzmán-Toledo et al. (2021). These circumstances may introduce substantial bias, limiting the generalizability of the observed patterns to broader and more diverse populations.

With respect to the perpetrator profile, evidence indicates the presence of ED among individuals who engage in violence (Echeburúa et al. 2023; Martín and Moral 2019). Echeburúa et al. (2023) highlight that male aggressors tend to exhibit extreme emotional dependence, expressed through jealousy, controlling behaviors, and anxiety over the potential loss of their partner, without necessarily presenting severe structural psychopathology, a finding supported by Echeburúa and Amor (2016).

On the other hand, one of the most relevant and consistent findings of this review is the high prevalence of bidirectional violence within intimate relationships, particularly in studies including mixed-gender samples. In this regard, 13 of the 30 reviewed studies employed mixed samples, and in 100% of these cases it was reported that both men and women may assume the roles of perpetrators and victims. This pattern is especially evident in the study by Segundo et al. (2022), who indicate that beyond mutual aggression, bidirectionality is associated with an escalation in conflict intensity. In that study, avoidant and anxious attachment styles were linked to higher levels of both physical violence (perpetration and victimization).

Similarly, a study conducted in India over a one-year period in 2012, involving a representative sample of 1000 married men aged 21 to 49 years, revealed a prevalence of IPV victimization of 52.4% within this population (Malik and Nadda 2019).

However, bidirectionality should not be confused with symmetry. For example, Guzmán González et al. (2016) found that 53.4% of men and 46.6% of women reported physical violence within the relationship, suggesting a certain degree of parity in victimization. Nevertheless, when examining the most extreme points along the continuum of violence, the consequences fall disproportionately on women. In this regard, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2019) reports that 82% of victims of intimate partner or ex-partner homicide are women, compared to 18% who are men. Similarly, the global study by Stöckl et al. (2013) concluded that worldwide, women are six times more likely than men to be killed by their partner. In line with these findings, Fridel and Fox (2019), after analyzing four decades of FBI data in the United States, determined that 68% of homicide victims in intimate partner relationships were women. From a discursive perspective, bidirectional aggression does not occur within neutral contexts. Even when both partners engage in violent behavior, the underlying power asymmetry persists, as emotional dependence in women has been consistently associated with heightened vulnerability to victimization, while in men it tends to manifest as controlling and coercive behavior aimed at preventing abandonment (Belli 2023; Echeburúa and Amor 2016; Walker 1979; Amor and Echeburúa 2010).

It is also important to highlight that there is significant difficulty in accurately determining the true rates of more severe forms of physical violence perpetration within intimate relationships (Segundo et al. 2022). Although formal reports are useful, they may not reflect actual prevalence rates, as numerous studies indicate that men, for example, tend to report victimization less frequently. This tendency may be understood in light of social stigmas that penalize the expression of vulnerability in men.

This perspective is supported by the work of Rosette et al. (2015), who found that men who cry at work are perceived as less competent than women who do so. Similarly, Pugliese et al. (2023) argue that both men and women are constrained by gender roles, and behaviors that deviate from these norms may be judged negatively. Along these lines, Bates (2019) suggest that such bias may lead many men to rationalize the violence they experience as isolated incidents or misunderstandings rather than formally reporting it.

Regarding data on women’s reporting rates, the findings of Ferrer-Pérez et al. (2016), based on the analysis of a 2011 national macro-survey conducted in Spain, revealed that only one quarter of women who had experienced abuse had filed a formal report. Moreover, substantial similarities were found between victims who reported the abuse and those who did not. These findings suggest that research data and outcomes may be influenced by this limitation.

Therefore, the findings of this review do not support a simplistic interpretation in which men are always the aggressors and women the victims. However, it is evident that the most severe and lethal consequences of intimate partner violence disproportionately affect women. When aggression is bidirectional, it is typically associated with higher levels of conflict and appears to be more prevalent in dating and adolescent relationships, where bonds are often characterized by greater emotional instability, impulsivity, and less developed relational skills.

This highlights that adolescent and young adult romantic relationships do not share exactly the same dynamics as more established adult partnerships. In youth, relational patterns are shaped by developmental, cultural, and, increasingly, technological factors, which may render these relationships particularly vulnerable to bidirectional expressions of violence. Given this complexity, intimate partner violence should be approached from a more realistic, empirically grounded, and integrative perspective, one that considers not only its various forms but also the diversity and differential severity of its consequences.

Finally, it is worth highlighting the considerable number of studies that include young samples, primarily in dating relationships, student populations, and contexts in which cyberviolence assumes an increasing relevance. This may reflect a growing and socially widespread concern regarding intimate relationships during the early stages of affective development. Such a focus is especially pertinent in light of research indicating that violence and emotional dependence are reported more frequently among secondary school students than among university students (de la Villa et al. 2017). These findings point to a heightened vulnerability in earlier developmental stages which, if left unaddressed, may extend into adulthood, perpetuating cycles of violence and psychologically revictimizing processes.

Beyond the general association between attachment vulnerability and IPV, particular attention should be directed to sexual coercion and sexual violence as specific forms of IPV that may compound pre-existing attachment insecurities. As noted in the reviewed literature, anxious attachment has been identified as a predictor of sexual coercion victimization (Bonache et al. 2019; Gündoğmuş et al. 2023), suggesting that individuals with a heightened fear of abandonment and a compulsive need for relational closeness may be less able to set and enforce sexual boundaries within their partnerships. In this sense, we propose that sexual violence within intimate relationships does not merely co-occur with attachment vulnerability, but may actively deepen it: experiences of sexual violation by a trusted partner may shatter the internal working models of safety that even anxiously attached individuals rely upon, intensifying feelings of shame, self-blame, and worthlessness that further entrench emotional dependence on the very person who caused the harm (Castelló 2005; Amor and Echeburúa 2010). This dynamic may help explain why survivors of IPV that includes a sexual component often exhibit particularly elevated levels of emotional dependence, difficulty leaving the relationship, and reduced help-seeking behavior. Future research should specifically examine the moderating role of sexual violence within IPV on the trajectory of attachment insecurity and emotional dependence, with longitudinal designs capable of capturing whether exposure to sexual coercion within a partnership intensifies pre-existing anxious attachment patterns and sustains the cycle of abuse over time.

5. Conclusions

The present systematic review confirms the relevance of insecure attachment styles—particularly anxious-ambivalent attachment—and emotional dependence as risk factors in the dynamics of intimate partner violence (IPV). Although a direct causal relationship cannot be established, the evidence consistently demonstrates a robust association between anxious-ambivalent attachment and relational patterns characterized by fear of abandonment, excessive need for validation, interpersonal control, and persistent difficulties in emotional self-regulation.

In this regard, Attachment Theory proves useful for understanding how less-functional bonds are consolidated, particularly in the context of relational conflict, and for designing interventions that are sensitive to developmental stage and prior relational history. Moreover, the evidence challenges unidirectional explanatory models of intimate partner violence, highlighting the existence and influence of bidirectional and dynamic patterns. Although reciprocity does not imply symmetry in the harm caused, it allows for a more precise understanding of the escalation processes and the alternation of roles between victim and perpetrator. This perspective calls for the development of more equitable intervention strategies, capable of addressing the relational complexity inherent in the phenomenon.

Overall, the findings strongly support the inclusion of attachment and emotional dependence as key variables in IPV prevention and intervention programs. Interventions that foster secure bonds from early developmental stages, as well as the development of socioemotional competencies—such as emotion regulation, self-esteem, and conflict resolution—across genders, could have a significant preventive impact on the emergence of violent relationship dynamics.

Some of the limitations of this review relate to the methodological heterogeneity of the included studies, which were generally characterized by correlational designs and a limited exploration of mediating or contextual variables. In addition, a gender bias was identified in the reviewed literature, with a strong predominance of women as victims and men as perpetrators.

The findings highlight the need to revisit and expand current explanatory frameworks on intimate partner violence, incorporating a more inclusive perspective that recognizes men as potential victims and women as perpetrators, without overlooking differences in impact and severity.

Future research should focus on the development of longitudinal and dyadic studies that examine how the attachment styles of both partners interact, as well as the moderating influence of contextual variables such as stress, beliefs about love, and the sociocultural environment. Such designs would allow for a richer and more realistic understanding of the factors that sustain or prevent violent dynamics within intimate relationships.