Challenges of School Disengagement: Exploring Community and Peer Influences on High School Student Dropout in Rural uMhlathuze, South Africa

Abstract

School dropouts remain a complex challenge for educational systems globally, with economic, social and psychological consequences for the individual and society at large. Evidence from the literature supports the high prevalence of school dropouts in rural communities, resulting in teenage pregnancy, exposure to drugs, and early marriage, among others. The study employed an exploratory approach to contribute to existing knowledge on the challenges of school disengagement through the lenses of community and peer-influence among high school students in rural South Africa. A qualitative research design employing semi-structured interviews was used, with a total of 20 interviews conducted (3 parents, 2 community leaders, 5 teachers, and 10 students, including dropouts). A thematic analysis procedure was employed for theme identification and analysis. There was evidence of a lack of community support in ensuring learners remain in school. Peer pressure was prevalent, given the influences and attachments students form with peers. This condition influences students to resort to drug abuse, teenage pregnancies, and early marriages as coping mechanisms for school dropouts. The overarching effect is a decline in academic comprehension, leading to school dropout rates. Parents and guardians play an active and collaborative role in discouraging practices that contribute to school dropout. Parent and community members must also be sensitised regarding the long-term negative effects of peer pressure and early marriage on education and future opportunities, especially for girls.

1. Introduction

The issue of school dropout is a widespread challenge in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where millions of children, particularly adolescents, leave school before completion (Arnos and Acevedo 2023). The dropout rate in this region is shaped by a mix of socio-cultural, economic, and institutional factors that vary across countries and communities (Mnyawami et al. 2022). This issue is particularly alarming, given the vital role of education in socio-economic development, poverty alleviation, and human capital development. Although understanding the contextual factors that lead to high rates of high school dropouts in sub-Saharan Africa is crucial, it is also necessary to identify effective interventions and tackle the root causes of educational exclusion. When examining these factors, one must consider not only the socio-economic aspects of dropout but also the cultural practices, gender norms, and systemic challenges that influence educational participation.

Economic hardship is one of the most significant factors contributing to school dropout rates in sub-Saharan Africa (Nabugoomu 2019). Families living in poverty often struggle to manage the direct and indirect costs of education, including, where applicable, school fees, uniforms, transportation, and educational materials (Nabugoomu 2019). Cultural norms and gender expectations significantly influence dropout rates in sub-Saharan Africa. In numerous regions, societal values prioritise early marriage, domestic responsibilities and childbearing for girls, overshadowing educational attainment. This practice is especially prevalent in countries like Niger, Chad and Mali, where girls encounter immense pressure to forsake their education in favour of marriage or caretaking roles at a young age (Nabugoomu 2019).

Dropout is not a singular event but a process, often marked by cumulative disadvantages over time. Scholars such as Mokoena and van Breda (2021) and Ngidi and Moletsane (2023) have argued that learners rarely disengage from school suddenly. Rather, the pathway to dropping out is characterised by persistent absenteeism, poor academic performance, diminished motivation, socioemotional distress, and, eventually, complete detachment from the school environment. These dynamics are shaped by structural, familial, institutional, and cultural contexts, all of which must be interrogated to understand the drivers of high dropout rates in South African schools more broadly, and in uMhlathuze specifically. Although government initiatives such as the No-Fee Schools policy and the National School Nutrition Programme (NSNP) have been implemented to alleviate financial burdens and promote learner retention, they often fall short of addressing the indirect costs of schooling. These include transport fares, school uniforms, stationery, and other learning materials, which are particularly burdensome for households in impoverished settings (Spaull and van der Berg 2020).

The issue of early high dropout rates in schools remains a formidable challenge for educational systems worldwide, with profound implications for individuals, communities, and larger societal frameworks (World Bank 2022). South Africa’s education system faces systemic attrition, with national matric pass rates (87.3% in 2024) masking massive pre-Grade 12 losses; furthermore, 40% of Grade 1 entrants (1.2 million in 2014) never reach matric, leaving ~422,000 dropouts by 2025 (Desai et al. 2024). Rural areas like uMhlathuze Municipality amplify this, as the KwaZulu-Natal rural throughput lags 10–15% below urban levels, with poverty, cultural norms, and infrastructure gaps compounding disengagement (Department of Basic Education 2022).

Parental involvement and family stability also play pivotal roles in learners’ educational outcomes. Research by Save the Children (2023) links parental separation, orphanhood, and household instability to diminished school participation, citing emotional distress, lack of guidance, and reduced academic support as key intervening factors. In many cases, students are compelled to assume adult responsibilities prematurely, such as caring for younger siblings or seeking employment to supplement household income, leading to them dropping out of school. These pressures are exacerbated by broader structural inequalities such as unemployment and inadequate access to social services, particularly in rural communities.

One significant factor impacting high dropout rates in South African schools is the influence of community and peer dynamics (Clarke 2020). Peer pressure frequently diverts students from their academic pursuits; however, the absence of robust communal support systems exacerbates the problem (Clarke 2020). In numerous instances, communities grappling with socioeconomic hardships prioritise immediate survival over long-term educational goals, thereby inadvertently fostering high rates of school dropout (Sing and Maringe 2020). Students within these environments often lack positive role models (or mentors), which compounds their disconnect from academic life (Andersen et al. 2021).

Globally, school dropout is not unique to South Africa. In sub-Saharan Africa, dropout rates are alarmingly high, with the World Bank (2022) reporting that nearly one in five children aged 12–17 is out of school. The reasons vary but typically include poverty, cultural practices, limited access to secondary schools, and gender-based discrimination. Countries such as Rwanda have sought to address this through long-term strategies, such as the Vision 2050 initiative, which aims to enhance industrial and technological skills training. However, access to such programmes is uneven, often excluding rural and low-income learners due to infrastructural and resource constraints (Rugimbana and Mwila 2023).

The educational fallout from the COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated dropout risks, particularly among learners from marginalised communities. School closures, combined with a lack of digital infrastructure and continuity-of-learning strategies, resulted in many learners falling irreparably behind in their studies. According to Choe (2021), children in sub-Saharan Africa, especially those from poorer households, were disproportionately affected, with many never returning to school post-lockdown. This trend underscores the need for robust, inclusive, and flexible educational systems that can withstand external shocks and maintain learner engagement.

The consequences of school dropout are severe and far-reaching. Economically, early school leavers face diminished employment prospects and earning potential. The National Dropout Prevention Centre (2023) reports that high school dropouts earn significantly less than their peers who complete secondary education and have limited access to stable employment. Socially, dropouts are more likely to engage in high-risk behaviours, including substance abuse, crime, and early parenthood (Ngidi and Moletsane 2023). Psychologically, feelings of shame, alienation, and low self-worth often accompany educational failure, further limiting individuals’ ability to reintegrate into formal systems or pursue alternative career paths.

The uMhlathuze case is justified for this study with its unique presence of industrial hubs and economic viability. Despite these features, the rural municipality still faces significant socioeconomic challenges including high rates of unemployment and under-resourced educational resources (Department of Social Development 2022). These disparities create a complex educational environment in which many learners remain at risk of dropping out of school (Department of Social Development 2022). The municipality comprises non-fee institution schools, aligned with the government’s pro-poor educational policy, and participates in the National School Nutrition Programme (NSNP) (Department of Basic Education 2022). Notwithstanding these support mechanisms, there has been persistent learner attrition over the years, with Grade 10 and 11 showing particularly high dropout rate trends (Department of Basic Education 2022).

Crime and violence are associated with risk of school dropouts in rural South Africa. According to the Department of Basic Education (2022), 60% of student dropouts in rural uMhlathuze are associated with crime, with consequential fallout on how peer influence impacts or explains school dropouts. Peer influence in rural uMhlathuze, like other rural environments in South Africa, may contribute to shaping students’ attitudes and perceptions towards education; this is largely explained by the cultural and traditional history of the municipality (National Dropout Prevention Centre 2023). With its rural nature, the municipality has witnessed an upsurge of negative peer influence among the student population with manifested actions including disengagement from school and substance use (Department of Basic Education 2022). These behaviours influence the likelihood of dropping out of school, as students may possibly feel detached or not backed up in their education. Studies have shown that the socio-economic conditions of the rural community, provoked by poverty and unemployment, support evidence of school dropouts in rural areas (Ndejjo et al. 2023; Hameed et al. 2024).

The uMhlathuze case reinforces the above position, with its increasing poverty rate compounded by a growing 40.8% unemployment rate (Department of Basic Education 2022). The role of community outlook cannot be overemphasised in the analysis of school dropout in rural uMhlathuze. For instance, patriarchal norms and beliefs predominantly eulogise early marriage at the expense of education among young adolescents, making school attendance problematic (Department of Basic Education 2022). While these issues are not isolated from similar rural contexts in South Africa like the Joe Morolong Local Municipality and King William’s Town in the Northern Cape and Eastern Cape provinces, where approximately half of Grade 10 learners only make it to matric. The unique case of the uMhlathuze municipality reflects standing traditional history and cultural rites of adolescent to adulthood transitions, and the impact of these on adolescents’ engagement with schooling (National Dropout Prevention Centre 2023).

Early dropout rates in schools remain a formidable challenge for educational systems worldwide, with profound implications for individuals, communities, and larger societal frameworks. Although prior studies have thoroughly documented dropout trends in various regions, these findings frequently overlook the intricacies of social pressure, parental monitoring, community collaboration and efforts that support education that are unique to rural South Africa (Andersen et al. 2021; Fourie 2020; Gubbels et al. 2019; Jochim et al. 2021; Lianyu and Msafiri 2022; Mathebula et al. 2022; Moscoviz and Evans 2022). Previous studies from South Africa studied school dropout through economic and institutional approaches, but they failed to investigate how peer relationships and community development influence school dropout in rural municipalities like uMhlathuze. This echoes the originality of this study in introducing the nuances of community roles and peer pressure influence which exist within a sociocultural framework established by poverty, community systems and cultural practices. Thus, the objectives include to understand the role of community influence on school dropouts among high school learners, to highlight and understand peer pressure influence on school dropouts among high school students, and to interrogate the dynamics and challenges of school dropouts among high school students.

2. Research Questions

The study is guided by the following research questions:

• How do community-embedded social roles influence the risk and processes of school dropout among high school learners in rural uMhlathuze?
• What is the role of peer group dynamics in learners’ decisions to disengage from formal schooling in rural uMhlathuze?
• What factors and challenges contribute to school dropout among high school students in rural uMhlathuze?

3. Social and Community Influence

The influence of peers and the wider community on school dropout rates has been extensively examined in educational research. These social factors often play a crucial role in shaping students’ attitudes toward education; however, they can be both beneficial and detrimental (Fatimah et al. 2021). Among high school dropouts, peer groups and community contexts can serve as either supportive networks that foster educational engagement or as deterrents that lead to disengagement and eventual dropout (Awang et al. 2021). Peers significantly affect adolescents’ behaviour and decision-making processes, particularly with respect to their commitment to education (Choe 2021).

During adolescence, young individuals are highly susceptible to peer pressure, which can either promote academic engagement or incite risky behaviours that undermine educational success (Mackatiani et al. 2022). Negative influences from peers frequently manifest in actions such as truancy, substance abuse and disengagement from school activities (Mackatiani et al. 2022). This, in turn, increases the probability of dropping out, because students may feel isolated or unsupported in their educational journey. Research conducted in sub-Saharan Africa reveals that students who associate with peers who have already dropped out of school are significantly more likely to follow a similar trajectory (Choe 2021). This phenomenon, often referred to as the “contagion effect”, occurs when disengaged peers normalise dropout as an acceptable option. Students in high-poverty areas are more likely to drop out because their close friends have made that choice, citing peer encouragement to engage in informal work as a crucial factor (Spaull and van der Berg 2020).

Positive peer influence can serve as a protective factor, as shown by studies from high-income countries like the United States and Canada, which have shown that students who belong to academically focused peer groups are less likely to drop out, although this varies depending on individual circumstances (Lowder et al. 2022; Hoyt 2023). The community functions as the immediate socio-cultural framework within which students grow and develop. Community norms, values and practices can have profound implications for educational outcomes (Kayonda et al. 2021). In communities where education is highly valued and celebrated, students are more likely to persevere in the face of challenges. In communities with low levels of educational attainment and employment opportunities, students may perceive little value in completing high school (Kayonda et al. 2021). As seen in other rural and peri-urban areas in South Africa, community challenges such as unemployment, crime and substance abuse contribute to a culture of educational disengagement (Mthalane et al. 2021).

The socioeconomic status of a community significantly affects dropout rates, particularly in regions characterised by poverty and inequality (Mthalane et al. 2021). Students from impoverished backgrounds are more likely to face pressure to leave school to support household income. In rural areas of South Africa, families frequently prioritise subsistence farming or informal labour over formal education (Moolman et al. 2020). Community expectations play a crucial role. In traditional or patriarchal societies, cultural norms may place a greater emphasis on early marriage or domestic responsibilities for girls (Mthalane et al. 2021). Conversely, boys might be expected to enter the workforce at a young age. These conflicting expectations undermine the demands of formal education, leading to elevated dropout rates, especially among students from marginalised groups.

Substance abuse and criminal activities represent significant contributors to dropout rates. Communities beset by elevated levels of alcohol and drug abuse foster environments that are generally not conducive to learning. Research conducted in South Africa has demonstrated that students who are exposed to drug use or gang activity in their neighbourhoods are more likely to withdraw from school, primarily due to safety concerns, peer influence, or even direct involvement in such activities. For instance, in a study by Mokoena and van Breda (2021) regarding the effects of substance abuse in township schools, students indicated that they felt unsafe while travelling to and from school in areas where drug dealing and gang-related violence are prevalent.

The significance of community engagement in reducing dropout rates cannot be overstated (Mokoena and van Breda 2021). Communities that actively participate in school governance and decision-making processes are more likely to cultivate environments conducive to student retention. In South Africa, the School Governing Body (SGB) framework underscores the importance of community involvement in education; however, its effectiveness varies with local capacity and available resources. Interventions that utilise community assets have demonstrated the potential to decrease dropout rates (Mokoena and van Breda 2021; Pedditzi et al. 2022). For instance, community-driven initiatives that involve parents, local leaders, and civil society organisations have been effective in highlighting the importance of education.

4. School Drop-Out: Challenges and Issues

Economic hardship remains a primary factor, particularly in low-income and rural communities. Families facing financial constraints often struggle to meet the direct and indirect costs of education, such as transportation, uniforms, and textbooks, despite the availability of free basic education policies (Pedditzi et al. 2022). The opportunity cost of education also burdens many households; adolescents are often required to contribute to household income or assume caregiving responsibilities (Mokoena and van Breda 2021). According to Spaull and van der Berg (2020), economic instability disproportionately affects children from disadvantaged backgrounds, making them more vulnerable to dropping out. The role of the family environment in influencing dropout rates cannot be overstated. Dysfunctional family dynamics, lack of parental support and low educational aspirations within households contribute significantly to students leaving school prematurely.

The prevalence of single-parent households may exacerbate these challenges. Studies have indicated that the absence of positive role models and emotional support can undermine students’ ability to remain engaged in school (Doe et al. 2022; Spaull and van der Berg 2020). Family crises such as divorce, substance abuse, or domestic violence create environments that hinder academic performance and increase dropout risks (Daramola 2024; Klencakova et al. 2023; Hameed et al. 2024). Cultural norms and societal expectations play a crucial role in influencing dropout rates, particularly within rural and peri-urban communities (Daramola 2024). In certain contexts, traditional beliefs may devalue formal education, especially for girls. Practices such as early marriage, teenage pregnancy and gendered divisions of labour frequently compel young girls to leave school prematurely (Mthalane et al. 2021).

The stigma associated with teenage pregnancy can discourage young mothers from returning to school, thus perpetuating cycles of poverty and limited educational attainment (Doe et al. 2022; Thieme 2021). Peer influence is a crucial factor in high school dropout rates. Adolescents, who are often highly impressionable, are particularly vulnerable to social pressures, which can have either beneficial or detrimental effects on their educational experiences (Awang et al. 2021). Negative peer influences such as substance abuse, truancy, or engagement in delinquent activities frequently result in disengagement from school. A study conducted by Rumberger (2020) highlights the importance of peer dynamics in shaping students’ attitudes towards education.

Social pressures associated with gang involvement and substance abuse may further exacerbate dropout challenges. The prevalence of such issues in certain communities creates environments that are not conducive to sustained academic participation, particularly for at-risk youth (Minja 2021). This situation underscores the need for comprehensive interventions to address the myriad factors influencing student retention. Systemic issues within the education sector also contribute significantly to high dropout rates. Overcrowded classrooms, a lack of resources and inadequately trained teachers create barriers for effective learning, particularly in under-resourced schools (Ems and Mnjokava 2022). Although students who struggle academically in such environments are more likely to disengage, they eventually may drop out.

Health challenges pose significant barriers to educational attainment. Students who encounter these difficulties often experience higher absenteeism rates, which disrupt their learning processes and increase the likelihood of dropping out (Rugimbana and Mwila 2023). According to a study by Mugisho (2024), South African students grappling with undiagnosed or untreated mental health conditions are particularly vulnerable. This vulnerability is exacerbated by schools’ frequent lack of resources in providing adequate support. Socio-economic disparities further complicate health-related challenges. Limited access to healthcare services means that students with chronic illnesses or disabilities may struggle to meet the demands of their education (Ndejjo et al. 2023).

The COVID-19 pandemic significantly exacerbated challenges related to global dropout rates. Prolonged school closures, economic disruptions and the transition to remote learning have disproportionately impacted students from low-income households. Many of these individuals lacked access to digital devices, reliable internet connections, or conducive learning environments, resulting in significant learning losses and disengagement (Farcnik et al. 2022; Nzama and Ajani 2021). Efforts to address high student dropout rates have encompassed a variety of initiatives. The Department of Basic Education in South Africa has introduced several initiatives to reduce student dropout rates. These include the NSNP to combat hunger, the No-Fee School Policy to remove financial barriers, and the Second Chance Matric Programme to support learners who did not pass matric. Together, these initiatives aim to improve learner retention and educational outcomes (Ngidi and Moletsane 2023).

5. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory evolved from the ecological systems model introduced in 1979 to the bioecological framework refined in later years. The framework highlights that human development occurs through dynamic interactions between the individual and different environmental systems (El Zaatari and Maalouf 2022). Bronfenbrenner’s thesis provides a strong theoretical foundation for understanding learner dropout because it conceptualises the phenomenon as the result of continuous interactions between individuals and their surrounding environments rather than merely personal choices. The theory emphasises that individuals are embedded within layers of social contexts, each of which contributes to developmental outcomes (Moleko and Xulu-Gama 2024). In educational research, this perspective is particularly useful for examining how social, cultural, economic, and institutional factors influence learners’ educational participation and persistence. In rural contexts such as uMhlathuze municipality, where socio-economic pressures, cultural expectations, and infrastructural limitations intersect, the ecological systems approach provides a valuable lens for examining the complex factors contributing to school dropout. Within this framework, Bronfenbrenner identifies several nested systems that shape human development: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner 1979).

The microsystem refers to the immediate environments in which individuals interact directly, including family, school, and peer groups. These environments play a critical role in shaping learners’ motivation, behaviour, and engagement with education (Rahman 2025). Family relationships are particularly significant within this system, as parental support, emotional stability, and household socio-economic conditions influence learners’ ability to remain in school (Flynn and Mathias 2025). However, in many rural communities, economic challenges may require learners to contribute to household labour or income-generating activities, which may interfere with regular school attendance. The school environment also plays an essential role in the microsystem. Positive teacher–learner relationships and supportive classroom environments can strengthen learners’ sense of belonging and academic motivation. Conversely, limited teacher support, overcrowded classrooms, and inadequate educational resources may weaken learners’ engagement with schooling (Rahman 2025). While supportive peer networks can promote academic persistence, negative peer influences may encourage truancy and disengagement from school (Calhoun 2025). The microsystem demonstrates how everyday interactions within family, school, and peer contexts can either reinforce or undermine learner retention.

The mesosystem is the relationships and interactions among microsystems, particularly those among home, school, and community environments. Effective collaboration between these contexts can strengthen support systems for learners and improve educational outcomes (Bronfenbrenner and Morris 1998). Contrarily, in many rural settings, weak communication and limited engagement between families and schools may contribute to learner disengagement. For example, parents with work commitments or unfamiliarity with school systems may struggle to maintain regular communication with teachers about their children’s academic progress. Nayak and Kumar (2022) argue that when parents are unable to participate actively in school-related activities, learners may experience reduced supervision and support for their educational development. In some communities, traditional obligations or community norms may conflict with formal schooling requirements, thereby disrupting the connection between educational institutions and community structures (Moleko and Xulu-Gama 2024). Ramparsad (2023) notes that such tensions may contribute to educational disengagement when learners struggle to balance cultural expectations with school responsibilities. The breakdowns within the mesosystem may weaken the networks of support necessary for sustained learner participation in education.

The exosystem relates to external environments that indirectly influence learners’ development, even when learners themselves may not participate in them directly. These environments include parental workplaces, social services, community infrastructure, and economic conditions (Ntsele 2024). Economic instability and employment conditions often influence family dynamics and, in turn, affect learners’ educational experiences. Ntsele (2024) emphasises that family dysfunction and economic stress may increase learners’ vulnerability to disengagement from school. Institutional factors also play a role within the exosystem, and limited access to essential services, inconsistent school feeding programmes, and inadequate transport infrastructure can create additional barriers to school attendance (Bronfenbrenner and Morris 1998). In rural municipalities such as uMhlathuze, these structural challenges may intensify existing socio-economic inequalities and increase the risk of school dropout.

The macrosystem represents the broader cultural values, social norms, and policy frameworks that shape educational experiences (Paat 2013). These influences operate at a societal level and define the ideological context within which educational systems function. In South Africa, the macrosystem reflects the interaction between traditional cultural practices, socio-economic inequalities, and national education policies (Sekhothe 2024). Cultural expectations in some rural communities, including gendered household roles and early marriage practices, may conflict with formal schooling requirements and influence learners’ educational trajectories. Rosa and Tudge (2013) highlight that social and cultural contexts significantly shape learners’ academic engagement and performance within South African schooling environments. At the policy level, government initiatives aimed at addressing poverty and improving access to education play an important role in supporting learner retention. However, disparities in policy implementation and resource allocation may limit the effectiveness of these initiatives in rural communities.

The chronosystem introduces the dimension of time into Bronfenbrenner’s framework by examining how life transitions, historical events, and socio-economic changes influence individuals’ development over time (Flynn and Mathias 2025). Educational experiences are shaped not only by immediate contexts but also by broader temporal factors, including policy changes, economic shifts, and societal disruptions. For example, major social disruptions such as the COVID-19 pandemic significantly affected educational systems worldwide. In many rural South African communities, limited access to digital technologies made remote learning difficult, thereby increasing the risk of learner disengagement from schooling. Ramparsad (2023) emphasises that such contextual disruptions can exacerbate existing inequalities and create long-term consequences for learners’ educational trajectories.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory was used in the development of the interview guide, by ensuring that questions raised during the data collection reflected all the levels of the ecological system. In doing this, the interview questions were carefully structured beyond participant-level explanation to a wider sociocultural, institutional and structural context. For instance, at the microsystem level, the interview guide captures community role, the importance of education and awareness, the role of peer pressure and the lack of supporting environment as critical to school disagreement. At the mesosystem level, questions probed relate to the breakdown or discontinued interest in schooling arising from social behaviours including teenage pregnancies, early marriage and drug abuse. For the mesosystem level, the interview guide reflects questions that probe contextual factors that indirectly affect students’ disengagement with schooling, including socioeconomic conditions, poverty, parental economic viability and availability of educational resources. Cultural norm and religious expectation questions affecting students’ decision to disengage from school were probed at the macrosystem level to understand the wider societal pattern of school disengagement. Lastly, questions on how poor academic performance and discontinued interest trigger disengagement in schooling were probed at the chronosystem level.

The coding of the interview transcripts was guided by Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems by first identifying how important sections capture school disengagement. Thereafter, pre-determined codes based on all the ecological levels were applied. What followed was the creation of codes and themes from the raw data. Finally, all codes were arranged into different themes and categorised at the ecological systems level to explain the multi-layered perspectives of school disengagement.

Applying Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems framework to the study of learner dropout highlights that school withdrawal rarely results from a single factor. Instead, it emerges from the complex interaction of influences across multiple environmental systems. Family economic pressures, peer dynamics, weak school–community relationships, institutional limitations, and cultural expectations collectively shape learners’ educational experiences. Within the uMhlathuze municipality, these interconnected influences illustrate how socio-cultural conditions, economic inequalities, and institutional challenges contribute to learner dropout. By adopting an ecological perspective, this study situates learner dropout within a broader social system rather than attributing it solely to individual behaviour.

However, some scholars argue that ecological systems theory can be challenging to operationalise empirically (Cabrera et al. 2016; Christensen 2016). For instance, systems can be limited in absolute measurement, lacking a precise impact on individual development. They may overemphasise the environment and neglect the role of the individual in their own development (Paat 2013), consistently relying on the negatives of the environment while ignoring the individual resilience factors in development (Paquette and Ryan 2001). Despite these criticisms, the emphasis on contextual and systemic influences makes it particularly useful for analysing complex educational challenges such as school dropout. By examining interactions across multiple environmental levels, the framework offers a comprehensive theoretical lens for understanding and addressing the socio-cultural factors that influence learner retention.

6. Methodology

6.1. Philosophical Grounding and Design

The study builds on an interpretive philosophical grounding as the appropriate foundation for understanding participants’ perspectives, opinions, and subjective views, thereby elucidating the challenges of dropout through the prism of community and peer influence interactions among high school students in a rural context. The interpretive approach justifies adopting a qualitative orientation and examining the subjective experiences and meanings that participants attached to their understanding of dropout challenges from the sociocultural perspectives of community roles and peer influence interactions (Braun and Clarke 2014). To develop a more comprehensive understanding of the sociocultural interpretations of community and peer influence interactions in school dropout, an exploratory research design is necessary. A collection of social and cultural expectations influences the conundrums of school dropout. Thus, some of these issues present nuances in their implications and understanding, leaving gaps for further exploration.

6.2. Population, Sample and Setting

The study population comprises stakeholders who are directly or indirectly affected by the socio-implications and challenges of school dropout. These include students (18 years older) who are currently learners; those who have left school or dropped out; teachers/educators; parents or custodians, who also bear the effects of their wards dropping out of school; and community leaders. Community leaders refer to local leaders such as traditional leaders, community policing forum members, or religious figures who play roles in monitoring students/youth behaviour.

The inclusion of these various stakeholders is intended to deepen the conversation and foster a holistic understanding of the complexity of school dropout and its implications. This appropriately supports the argument that the firsthand experiences and perspectives of these stakeholders are crucial for understanding not only the challenges of school dropout but also the potential interventions that could be adopted at the school and community levels. A total of twenty (20) participants were recruited for the study (see

Table 1. Sample distribution.

Participants	Number of Participants
Community leaders	02
Students (including dropouts)	10
Parents	03
Educators/Teachers	05
Total	20

for sample distribution). This sample size supports the qualitative tradition, in which a small sample is required to elicit in-depth discussions about a phenomenon. The sample size of 20 participants is consistent with qualitative research principles prioritising depth over breadth (Sekaran and Bougie 2016; Creswell 2014). The study was conducted in the Mhlathuze Local Municipality in the King Cetshwayo District of KwaZulu-Natal. The municipality is one of the best secondary cities in the province, with a thriving deep-water port and industrial development zone. Despite these, the municipality comprises rural communities with deepening poverty and crime. Specifically, the Qantayi High School located within the Mahunu Reserve, under the Mkhwanazi Traditional Authority in Esikhawini, with predominantly rural leaners, forms the context for this study. The school, like other rural high schools in South Africa, enjoys a governmental no-fee admission policy for the poor, yet still faces dropout challenges caused by poverty and other social factors.

6.3. Sampling Strategy and Instrument

The sampling strategy combines both purposive and snowballing strategies. First, participants were recruited based on their roles, interactions, and experiences within the school community. For instance, students, including dropouts (provide real accounts of their experiences relating to the challenges of school dropouts and associated risk factors and influences); parents (provide background to understand the influence of parental care and community); educators (offer educational support systems insights); and community leaders (highlight the significance of the community leaders as watchdogs in the prevention of school dropouts). Purposive recruitment justifies the need for rich and detailed information from students who are directly affected by the socio-cultural complexities of school dropouts, with parents, educators and community leaders contributing complementary insights for a more thorough understanding of the research problem.

Second, the snowballing strategy was utilised in the instance of difficulty in accessing participants. The initial participants identified and recruited through local community members were further persuaded to refer others who met the study criteria. The rural complexities of the uMhlathuze municipality and the unavailability of institutional records of readily identifiable high school dropouts further justify the snowballing, where trust is built with community members for ease of access through referrals. Only participants aged 18 and above were interviewed. The qualitative data were collected using a self-developed semi-structured interview, which enabled the exploration of free views and responses. The interviews, aligned with the study objectives, were administered using an interview guide to ensure consistency in participants’ inquiries and responses. All interviews were conducted in English and recorded, with each lasting 45–60 min. The range of questions asked included the following: ‘Have you seen any cultural customs or beliefs that appear to affect how pupils feel about school and how likely it is that they will drop out?’ ‘Which peer behaviors and attitudes have the greatest influence on school dropouts, and how do they differ among demographic groups or educational settings?’ ‘What do you think are the main reasons students drop out of school, and how can parents assist?’ ‘Do you think your school provides enough resources and support for students who may have difficulty staying in school? If not, what could be improved?’

6.4. Data Quality

The credibility of the data was ensured through prolonged engagement with participants, by facilitating rapport-building to gain intense understanding of participants experiences. In addition, triangulation was employed to enhance credibility with the multiple sources of data from students’, parents, educators/teachers and community leaders. This process ensures a holistic, comprehensive and credible understanding of the problem and data. To further ascertain trustworthiness, member checking was done immediately after the initial coding and analysis. To do this, the researcher returned to a subset of participants with summarised interpretations of their interviews to validate the accuracy of the findings. This process was done to ensure that the subjectivity of the researcher was greatly controlled through tractability and transparency, by reducing the risk of empathy with participants’ experiences or likely researcher assumptions based on prior knowledge. To ensure the transferability of the research findings to other similar context, thick, detailed and contextual descriptions of the research settings were offered, including the socio-economic and cultural conditions of school dropouts, as well as a broad overview of the recruitment sampling and participants features to ensure that others can assess the findings in light of similar research settings. The study adhered to all ethical procedures for human participants, including safety measures, protection against physical, psychological, or emotional harm, and the maintenance of participant anonymity and confidentiality. For instance, pseudonyms were used to conceal participants’ identities. The University Research and Ethics Committee approved the study under reference number UZ-REC 0691-008/2023/59.

6.5. Data Analysis

The data analysis followed a thematic analysis procedure. Audio recordings were transcribed verbatim and organised for analysis. Initial open coding was conducted to identify meaningful units of text related to dropout experiences. These preliminary codes were then reviewed and grouped into broader categories reflecting recurring patterns across participants. The transcripts were revisited and read line by line to ensure that appropriate statements or expressions were coded. Coding was conducted by the primary researcher and reviewed independently by the second researcher to enhance consistency. This process led to the identification of relevant phrases including lack of community support, community involvement, learners’ expectations, academic disengagement, pervasive influence and systemic barriers. Through iterative comparison, categories were refined into themes including community disengagement, community leaders’ proactiveness, supportive educational environment, peer pressure, belonging and identity, culture, marriage, pregnancy, drug abuse, and cultural barriers. Discrepancies were discussed until consensus was reached, ensuring that themes accurately reflected participants’ narratives. For instance, the themes were refined for accurate representation of the data.

After the refinement, some themes were collapsed to ensure internal consistency and distinctiveness. Thereafter, each theme was then clearly explained and labelled to mirror the true essence of the participants’ experiences. The findings and report were presented through a clear analysis of the themes in tandem with the research objectives, including the interpretation and implication of each theme. The themes were analysed thematically, with researchers actively engaging with the data, leading to interpretive sensitivity, particularly in sensitive interpretations of cues and experiences. Finally, the credibility of these processes supports the multiple layers of data sources, and the rigourous analytical procedures. The themes and analysis were shared with a unit of stakeholders, which forms the participants, for member checking to validate the trustworthiness of the data and findings.

7. Results

This section presents the findings as detailed below. Pseudonyms protected respondents’ anonymity. For instance, teacher participants were identified with (T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5), community leader participants with (G1 and G2), student participants with (S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S7, S8, S9 and S10), and parent participants with (P1, P2 and P3).

Table 2. Thematic mapping.

Themes	Ecological Systems	Definition	Illustrative Quotes	Link to Research Questions
Community disengagement	Microsystem	Lack of coordinated community support for education	“Failure of the community to work together…”	How do community-embedded social roles influence the risk and processes of school dropout among high school learners in rural uMhlathuze?
Community leaders’ proactiveness	Exosystem	Proactive role of community leaders in combating school absenteeism	“As community leaders we used to form groups that search students that bunk classes to lower the rate of absenteeism”	How do community-embedded social roles influence the risk and processes of school dropout among high school learners in rural uMhlathuze?
Significance of education	Microsystem	Poor awareness of the importance of education in the rural community	“There is not a lot of encouragement to stay in school in our community”	How do community-embedded social roles influence the risk and processes of school dropout among high school learners in rural uMhlathuze?
Peer pressure	Microsystem	Influence of peers encouraging dropout	“I dropped out because my friends had dropped out…”	What is the role of peer group dynamics in learners’ decisions to disengage from formal schooling in rural uMhlathuze
Supportive educational environment/poverty	Microsystem/Exosystem	Lack of supportive environment to keep students in school	“Students drop out because of the poverty, financial imbalance due to lack of job opportunities, peer pressure”	What is the role of peer group dynamics in learners’ decisions to disengage from formal schooling in rural uMhlathuze?
Relevance of education	Microsystem	Perception of the necessity of remaining in school amidst uncertainties	“Yes, I felt like dropping out of school due to peer pressure from my friends who got employed from surrounding industries without having grade 12”	What is the role of peer group dynamics in learners’ decisions to disengage from formal schooling in rural uMhlathuze
Social belonging and identity	Micro/Macro system	Pressure of imitation	“I dropped out because my friends are doing so, and I just want to hangout and not be in school”	What is the role of peer group dynamics in learners’ decisions to disengage from formal schooling in rural uMhlathuze
Academic struggles	Chronosystem	Poor performance leading to withdrawal	“I felt overwhelmed and defeated…”	What factors and challenges contribute to school dropout among high school students in rural uMhlathuze?
Cultural expectations of marriage	Macrosystem	The demand for young girls to be married at the expense of schooling	“My classmate left school because she had set her focus on getting married”	What factors and challenges contribute to school dropout among high school students in rural uMhlathuze?
Psychological toll of bullying from early pregnancy	Mesoystem	Disengaging from schooling because of bullying arising from early pregnancy	I left school because I became pregnant… I did not feel comfortable coming back to school because my peers would laugh at me and bully	What factors and challenges contribute to school dropout among high school students in rural uMhlathuze?
Drug abuse	Micro/Mesosystem	Addiction to drug and difficulty staying in school	“Many of the learners who eventually drop out of school start with drug abuse”	What factors and challenges contribute to school dropout among high school students in rural uMhlathuze?

shows the different patterns of themes, ecological systems, definitions and illustrative quotes from the qualitative data (see Table 2).

7.1. Community Influence and Roles

The study found a lack of community support to ensure that learners remained in school, underscoring the essential role of community presence. The participants’ responses indicate that a lack of collaboration among the community, parents, leaders, and religious leaders results in student disengagement, ultimately affecting their academic performance. Fostering a sense of belonging, support, and accountability can create a nurturing environment in which students thrive academically. When students feel connected to their community, they are more likely to stay engaged in school and to be motivated to succeed. Community involvement can also provide students with the necessary resources and support systems to overcome challenges they may face in their academic journey. Participant G1 had this to say:

“Failure of the community to work together with parents leads students to disengage in activities that are related to school and engage themselves in activities of their own, such as being under the influence of substance abuse, which plays a huge role in school dropouts”.

From the participant’s response above, the community is not working together to create a nurturing environment that is crucial for learners to appreciate school. Participant G2 supported the view of G1 and had this to say:

“If the neighbours do not support one another, that would increase the high rate of students who are dropping out of school. However, if there is ongoing violence between neighbours of surrounding students in a community where they reside, that would also contribute to students leaving school. He further emphasised that for students who face abuse in their families, such as rape, the community leaders, with the help of community members and police, must intervene in dealing with such situations and finding ways to return them to school”

Learners in the community often face pressure from individuals who have achieved success through unethical shortcuts. This pressure may lead learners to consider abandoning their education and joining negative groups, ultimately hindering their goals. Witnessing successful individuals in the community who have never pursued education or employment can cause students to question how these individuals’ attained success. As a result, learners may view these individuals as role models and become involved in harmful behaviours like substance abuse and criminal activities, ultimately leading to incarceration. This view is shared by several scholars. It is imperative to note that learners may lose interest in school, become disconnected from school activities, face academic challenges, and ultimately drop out if the community values success without education. Participant G1 had this to say:

“Yes, it plays a vast role because children’s future is shaped by their communities, as it also lies with their parents. However, working together as members of the community would drop the rates of school attrition”

Participant G2 echoed Participant G1’s sentiments, emphasising the proactive role of community leaders in combating school absenteeism. Both participants highlighted the collective efforts undertaken by community members to reduce learner truancy. These efforts include forming patrol groups to identify and approach students observed loitering during school hours. According to Participant G2, the aim was not only to discourage absenteeism but also to ensure that underage learners were kept away from inappropriate environments such as taverns. Explaining this, Participant G2 stated the following:

“As community leaders we used to form groups that search students that bunk classes to lower the rate of absenteeism, we further search in places where there is an age restriction for children who are younger than eighteen years old comprising of taverns and so on, if they find some students during school hours, we ask them reasons of why are they out of school and make some means to meet with their school teachers”.

The view of community support is not only shared by the community leaders but also by all participants in the study. The findings reveal that a lack of community support significantly undermines learners’ ability to remain engaged in school, underscoring the community’s critical role in shaping educational outcomes. Participants emphasised that collaboration among parents, community members, leaders, and religious figures is essential to fostering a nurturing environment for learners. Without such collaboration, students often disengage from school activities and become vulnerable to negative influences, including substance abuse and delinquent behaviours, which can lead to school dropout. Participant P1 had this to say:

“We as neighbours in the community must work together in encouraging our children about the importance of education, and to set good examples for those within our community who have succeeded through education. However, that would help lower the rate of early school withdrawal”

Participant P2 reinforced the earlier perspectives by emphasising the crucial role of community involvement in promoting youth education. The participant advocated for a united community effort to instil in learners a sense of value and purpose regarding their education. One of the proposed strategies is to celebrate and publicly recognise local role models and community members who have succeeded through education. According to the participant, this could serve as a powerful motivator for learners to take their studies seriously. As Participant P2 noted,

“It is high time the community works together to support our children and show them the importance of education… we can do that through celebrating in high esteem the individuals from our community who made it in life through education to show that it is possible”

This statement highlights the symbolic power of visible success stories in shifting learners’ attitudes toward education. By showcasing real-life examples of educational achievement within the community, participants suggest that young people are more likely to believe in their own potential and view education as a viable pathway to success. Student participants also alluded to the lack of community support and to its necessity. The learners’ insights highlight the essential role of the community in shaping their educational aspirations. A nurturing community that values education can foster students’ sense of purpose and motivation. This can encourage them to persist in school, even when faced with obstacles. However, a community that glorifies success without a foundation in education cultivates an environment in which academic endeavours are perceived as trivial or superfluous. Although this duality underscores the need to incorporate community-level interventions to reduce school dropout rates, it also emphasises the importance of holistic approaches.

Programmes designed to celebrate educational accomplishments underscore the significance of education and presenting role models who have thrived through academic routes could significantly alter community perceptions. Ultimately, cultivating a culture that prioritises education is a collective responsibility. When communities actively support learners, offer encouragement, and celebrate academic success, they foster an environment in which students are more likely to remain engaged, motivated, and focused on achieving their goals. However, this requires sustained effort from all stakeholders.

The participants collectively highlighted the significant influence of community attitudes on learners’ motivation to stay in school. While participant S4 emphasised the value of positive role models in inspiring perseverance, participants S3 and S7 pointed to a lack of encouragement and the glorification of success without education as demotivating factors. These perspectives suggest that when communities devalue education or lack role models who emphasise its importance, learners may question its relevance. Conversely, visible educational success stories can instil hope and ambition. The implication is clear: consistent, positive community messaging and support are essential in shaping learners’ educational aspirations and resilience.

Participant S3 had this to say:

“The community generally seems to hero-worship the guys who made it without education, and this kind of makes us question the importance of education if I can make it without education”

Participant S7 had this to say:

“There is not a lot of encouragement to stay in school in our community. Many adults did not complete their education and therefore do not recognise its importance. It is hard to stay motivated when no one around your values education.”

Participant S4 was of the view that community support is an important aspect:

“Positive role models in the community can inspire us to stay in school. When we see people who have succeeded despite challenges, it gives us hope that we can do it too.”

From teachers’ perspective, community support plays a vital role in ensuring that learners remain in school, as it reinforces the value of education and fosters a supportive environment that promotes regular attendance and academic commitment. Teachers recognise that when a community works together to create a positive environment, students are more likely to feel valued, motivated and capable of overcoming challenges. This perspective highlights the importance of fostering a sense of belonging and accountability within the community. For example, support from neighbours and community leaders can serve as an emotional and practical safety net, particularly for learners facing difficulties such as poverty, family instability, or lack of resources.

The complexities of the above factors necessitate a holistic approach. Although challenges exist, community cohesion can lead to transformative outcomes for students. Moreover, responses from educators suggest that community support acts as a buffer against external pressures that often lead to disengagement. These pressures can include peer influences, exposure to substance abuse and idolisation of individuals who have succeeded without education. To buttress the points stated above, Participant T3 sums up the idea and states the following:

“The community plays a huge role in whether students stay in school or drop out. If there is support from neighbours, teachers, and community leaders, students feel encouraged to keep going, even when things get tough”

The emphasis on teachers’ community support aligns with the study’s broader findings. These findings indicate that a nurturing and collaborative community environment is integral to preventing school dropout rates. Teachers, as key stakeholders in learners’ educational experiences, are acutely aware of how external factors influence academic engagement. Their perspective reinforces the view that education is a collective responsibility requiring active participation by all members of the community. This insight suggests that strategies to reduce school dropout rates must prioritise community engagement. However, mentorship programmes pairing learners with successful community members who have completed their education could provide inspiration and practical advice.

Teachers’ observations also point to the need for community awareness campaigns to highlight the long-term benefits of education. These campaigns could challenge existing narratives that devalue schooling. Be that as it may, they could instead promote stories of resilience and success achieved through academic efforts. By actively engaging with the community, teachers and schools can help shift cultural attitudes, ensuring that education is seen as a priority and a shared commitment. This is important because it fosters a supportive environment; however, some may resist change, believing that traditional views carry greater weight.

From these responses, one can conclude that community is an important factor contributing to students’ motivation in their academic journey. This study holds that, in a community that prioritises education, it is difficult for learners to drop out, as school dropouts are less likely to be accepted or supported by such a community. However, if dropping out of school is an acceptable culture and practice in the community, it becomes easier for the learner to drop out on the basis that it is an acceptable and probably celebrated practice.

7.2. Peer Pressure Attachment and Control

The study found peer pressure is a significant factor influencing high school students to drop out. However, other students held that it did not influence them, despite its existence. The responses from participants highlight the socioeconomic pressures that learners face, particularly in communities where informal income-generating activities, often referred to as “hustling,” are normalised and even glamorised. Such environments may inadvertently devalue formal education, leading young people to believe that dropping out of school in pursuit of quick financial gains is more rewarding than long-term academic investment. This pressure can undermine efforts to keep learners engaged in school. Participant S3 captured this challenge, stating the following:

“There is a lot of pressure to drop out of school and engage in hustling, which has quick money”

The response above indicates pressure from former students who may be earning income through illicit means. Furthermore, they tend to inspire other learners to leave school and engage in some ‘hustling’ activities. School becomes a time-wasting endeavour that does not offer a quick escape to making money. Participant S2 had this to say:

“Yes, because some of our older peers tend to tell us about things that they have experienced in grade 12, and mostly it is all the negative experiences, how exhausting grade 12 is and how the work they get from teachers piles up. However, I intend to have second thoughts about school”

This statement underscores the impact of peer narratives on students’ perceptions of schooling, particularly during transition to higher grades. Older peers play a significant role in shaping expectations of younger learners, often presenting grade 12 as a daunting and insurmountable challenge. Such negative accounts create anxiety and doubt, leading students like S2 to reconsider their commitment to education. This phenomenon reflects a broader issue of insufficient academic counselling and preparation. Although the narrative underscores the importance of managing students’ perceptions, it also emphasises proactive engagement and motivational strategies. This, therefore, is crucial for fostering a supportive educational environment. Participant S5 alluded to the concept of peer pressure and stated the following:

“Students drop out of school because of the poverty they face at home, financial imbalance due to lack of job opportunities, peer pressure from their surroundings and engaging in substance abuse”

This response situates the school dropout within a multifaceted socio-economic context. Poverty and financial instability are primary drivers: they create an environment where education is deprioritised in favour of immediate survival needs. Peer pressure and substance abuse further compound these challenges, creating a cycle of disengagement and vulnerability. Academically, this response underscores the interconnectedness of systemic issues, including unemployment, social inequality, and educational access. It suggests the need for holistic interventions that address both the economic and social pressures faced by students. Participant T1 had this to say:

“Learners are put under pressure by their peers to join them in dropping out of school and do other things”

This statement emphasises the pervasive influence of peer pressure in shaping student behaviour. The ambiguous reference to “other things” suggests that dropping out often results in engagement in non-constructive activities, such as substance abuse, early employment, or even criminal behaviour. From a critical perspective, this response highlights the role of social networks in educational outcomes. Peer groups serve as both risk and protective factors. Negative influences can derail academic trajectories; however, positive ones can foster resilience. Participant S7’s account reveals the powerful influence of peer pressure on learners’ decisions to leave school. His experience illustrates how the desire to conform to peer behaviour, particularly when dropout culture is normalised, can overshadow the perceived benefits of remaining in school. The desire for a lifestyle free from academic responsibilities, coupled with the influence of friends who have already left the school system, can make dropping out seem both acceptable and attractive. Reflecting on his own experience, Participant S7 stated the following:

“I dropped out of school because my friends had dropped out too… I envied the freedom and fun of living life without the demands of schoolwork, and I am ok with the decision I made”

This response illustrates how peer influence, combined with the allure of perceived freedom, can lead to disengagement from school. Participant S7’s satisfaction with their decision suggests a disconnect between the perceived benefits of education and students lived realities. Although many students strive for success, they often face challenges that can undermine their motivation. However, understanding these dynamics is crucial for addressing the issue at hand, as they reveal deeper underlying problems. Participant S1 had this to say:

“I dropped out of school because my friends had dropped out too… I envied the freedom and fun of living life without the demands of schoolwork”

The perception that education is unnecessary when financial success appears attainable is a recurring theme among participants. This belief is especially prevalent in communities where individuals secure employment in local industries despite not completing their schooling. Participant 10’s response highlights how such examples can mislead learners into undervaluing education, particularly when peer pressure reinforces the idea that immediate income is more desirable than long-term academic achievement. As Participant 10 explained,

“Yes, I felt like dropping out of school due to peer pressure from my friends who got employed from surrounding industries without having grade 12, and I thought school was not that important”

This narrative reveals a critical challenge: when learners witness peers succeeding without qualifications, it undermines the perceived relevance of education. The implication is that socioeconomic contexts and visible employment patterns can significantly influence learner attitudes. Therefore, efforts to reduce dropout rates must not only promote the value of education but also bridge the gap between academic attainment and real-world opportunities, ensuring that learners see a tangible connection between staying in school and future success. Participant G1’s response underscores the significant role of social belonging and identity in influencing learners’ decisions to stay in or leave school. When the dominant peer culture devalues education or associates school attendance with being “uncool,” learners may feel pressured to conform to gain acceptance. This suggests that dropping out is not always because of academic struggle but rather a reflection of social dynamics in which peer approval outweighs educational commitment. Participant G1 captured this notion by stating the following:

“Peer pressure is a big factor. Some students drop out because their friends are doing so, or because they feel they do not fit in if they remain in school. They might think it is cooler to hang out with friends who are not focused on school”

The participants’ responses reveal a significant influence of peer dynamics on school dropout rates. A recurring theme is the impact of peer pressure, whereby students are influenced by their peers’ actions, attitudes, and narratives. Many students feel compelled to abandon their education due to negative experiences reported by older peers, who often emphasise the challenges of achieving higher grades, such as the workload and stress of Grade 12. This discouraging portrayal casts doubt on the value of remaining in school. Additionally, some learners are swayed by the allure of perceived freedom and enjoyment that comes with dropping out, particularly when they see peers disengaging from academic responsibilities. This peer-driven decision-making is compounded by broader socio-economic challenges such as poverty, unemployment, and exposure to substance abuse, which further reduce learners’ resilience against peer influences.

Peer pressure is a key factor contributing to rising rates of school dropout. Learners from disadvantaged backgrounds may feel pressured to contribute financially to their families or to seek employment to support themselves. This pressure, coupled with the allure of quick money through illicit activities, can lead learners to drop out of school in pursuit of immediate financial gain. The impact of peer pressure on school dropouts in South Africa is far-reaching. Not only does it prevent individuals from obtaining quality education, but it also perpetuates cycles of poverty and inequality. Without a solid educational foundation, learners are limited in their potential for success and upward mobility.

7.3. Out-of-School Effects

7.3.1. Academic Comprehension

Learners who drop out of school or contemplate doing so tend to experience academic performance challenges. In many cases, it is very rare to find a learner who is exceptional and performing at the top level dropping out of school, unless other circumstances beyond academic performance are at play. If a learner performs poorly academically (i.e., fails to achieve the required learning outcomes), they may find it pointless to continue their education and may drop out of school. Participant S7’s account reveals the emotional and psychological burden that academic underperformance can place on learners. Feelings of shame, fear of judgement, and a lack of support can lead to disengagement from school, making dropping out seem like the only escape. The participant’s experience highlights how poor academic performance, when not addressed with empathy and intervention, can spiral into isolation and hopelessness. This emotional distress ultimately pushed the learner toward a decision to leave school. As Participant S7 explained,

“Eventually, I started skipping classes because I did not want to face the teachers or my friends, because my performance was poor. I felt so overwhelmed and defeated that I could not see a way out. I knew I needed to do something, but I did not know where to start. It got to the point where I felt like dropping out was my only option”

The narrative underscores the profound influence of poor academic performance on learners’ decisions to leave school. When students struggle to achieve the required academic outcomes, they often experience feelings of inadequacy, frustration and hopelessness. These emotions can intensify over time, leading learners to disengage from school activities, avoid interactions with peers and teachers, and ultimately consider leaving school as the only viable solution. The participant’s account underscores how academic struggles can create a sense of defeat, eroding motivation and self-esteem. Learners who repeatedly face academic setbacks may internalise failure, perceiving education as unattainable or irrelevant to their future. This sentiment can be exacerbated in environments lacking sufficient academic support systems, such as remedial programmes, mentorship, or counselling services. Participant T4 observed that poor academic performance directly affects learner motivation. When students consistently struggle, they begin to lose confidence and see no reason to remain in school. According to the participant, this lack of motivation often leads to dropout. As T4 noted,

“Learners who perform badly tend to have no motivation to continue with schooling, and almost all the learners I have seen dropping out of school were not performing well”

This suggests that academic failure is not only a learning issue but also psychological, eroding persistence and engagement over time. Participant T3 supported this view by highlighting how repeated academic failure can break a learner’s spirit. The participant noted that some learners, after failing multiple times, transfer schools to escape stigma, only to drop out eventually. As T3 explained,

“Some of the students are not as smart as others in school. Once they fail a class more than twice, they change schools and drop out”

This indicates that academic setbacks, combined with peer comparisons, can intensify feelings of inadequacy and prompt students to give up altogether. Participant P1 shared a personal account of her child’s emotional struggle with persistent failure. The learner began to question the value of staying in school when failure seemed inevitable, requiring significant emotional support to regain motivation. As P1 stated,

“My child thought of dropping out of school because there was no point in continuing education when she was going to fail at the end…it took a lot of motivation to make her pick herself up and continue with school”

This underscores the crucial role of parental support and encouragement in helping learners overcome academic discouragement and stay in school. Participants’ responses emphasise a strong correlation between poor academic performance and the likelihood of learners dropping out of school. A recurring theme is the loss of motivation and self-belief among learners who struggle academically, which leads them to view education as futile. Teachers highlight how repeated failures diminish a learner’s willingness to continue. However, some even opt to change schools before eventually dropping out. This pattern reflects the perception that failure is insurmountable, leaving learners feeling disconnected from the educational process. Parents also express similar concerns, noting the significant effort required to encourage struggling learners to persevere. These findings suggest that academic challenges not only hinder learners’ progress but also erode their confidence and commitment to education.

7.3.2. Pregnancy and Marriage

The recurring theme of pregnancy and marriage as factors influencing school dropout rates among female students highlights the significant social and cultural pressures they face. Participants’ responses reveal that, in certain communities, traditional gender roles and expectations play a pivotal role in shaping female students’ priorities and decisions regarding education. The notion that marriage offers a more immediate or attainable future compared to academic success appears to undermine their motivation to excel in school. However, this perspective is complex. Although many students recognise the value of education, they often find themselves torn between societal expectations and personal aspirations. This trend is further compounded by poor academic performance, which reinforces the belief that education is not a viable pathway. Instead of striving to overcome academic challenges, some female students align their efforts with societal expectations, such as preparing for marriage, fulfilling cultural obligations, including early initiation ceremonies, or taking on domestic caregiving roles within the family. The account of a student leaving school to focus on marriage underscores the influence of these external pressures on academic disengagement; however, the implications are far-reaching.

Schools and communities must collaborate to challenge these norms by promoting gender equity in education and emphasising the long-term benefits of academic achievement. Initiatives such as mentorship programmes, role modelling by successful women, and culturally sensitive community dialogues could help reshape attitudes toward education. By addressing the interplay between cultural expectations and academic challenges, stakeholders can create an environment in which female students feel empowered to pursue their educational goals, free from societal constraints. Participant T3 observed that cultural and religious beliefs, particularly in communities dominated by the Amanazaretha Church, influence some female students’ attitudes toward education. The belief that their ultimate role is to marry or be chosen within the church overshadows academic aspirations. As T3 noted:

“Most of the students are from the same area, so they have the same background. However, the female student has that attitude that “I will get married one day, I have to be chosen in the church, especially as we are in the community where Amanazaretha is the dominant”

This reveals how religious and cultural expectations can create psychological barriers to academic engagement for girls. Participant S10 shared a peer experience that reflects how marriage is prioritised over schooling among some female learners. Her classmate, already underperforming academically, chose to focus entirely on preparing for marriage rather than improving in school. As S10 recounted,

“My classmate left school because she had set her focus on getting married, her performance was poor, and there was nothing more important than preparing herself for marriage”

This highlights how cultural ideals around marriage can discourage female learners from persisting in their education, especially when coupled with academic struggles. The responses from both the teacher and the learner indicate that once marriage is anticipated or promised, some female learners may choose to drop out of school, viewing further education as unnecessary. Ultimately, learners attend school until a certain age and fulfil the state’s compulsory education obligations, after which they may leave school and marry. Communities with a dominant religious centre tend to base their lives on religious beliefs, which tend to shape learners’ views, including whether to prioritise education.

Teenage pregnancy emerged as a significant factor contributing to school dropout among female learners, and one that is deeply intertwined with issues of stigma, emotional trauma, societal expectations, and structural inadequacies within the education system. Unlike marriage, which may be perceived as a socially celebrated transition, pregnancy, particularly when it occurs out of wedlock, often subjects the young mother to shame and ridicule, both from peers and broader community members. Participant S9’s account reveals the profound emotional and psychological toll that a teenage pregnancy can have on a learner including being bullied by peers. Her embarrassment and fear of being mocked and bullied by classmates created a hostile learning environment that ultimately deterred her from returning to school. She explained:

“I left school because I became pregnant… I did not feel comfortable coming back to school because my peers would laugh at me and bully me for getting pregnant… I am embarrassed to resume school”

This highlights how social stigma can significantly erode a learner’s self-esteem, making reintegration into the schooling system extremely difficult, especially in the absence of psychosocial support. Participant T3 adds another layer to the issue by pointing to the perceived financial security associated with the partner responsible for the pregnancy. In such cases, young girls may believe they have attained a form of economic stability or social acceptance, thus rendering continued education irrelevant. T3 noted the following:

“Once a student becomes impregnated by someone able, they will drop out of school”

This perspective illustrates the impact of economic dependency and gender expectations, where the promise of support from a financially capable partner outweighs the perceived long-term value of completing school. Participant T4’s assertion that early pregnancy is the primary cause of dropout oversimplifies a complex issue. While pregnancy may act as the catalyst, it is the broader social context, including economic vulnerability, lack of childcare facilities, minimal institutional support, and judgmental school cultures, that compounds the challenge. T4 stated the following:

“Students get pregnant at an early age, which is the reason for them to drop out of school”

This view overlooks how systemic failures, such as inadequate support for young mothers, the absence of reintegration policies, and a lack of counselling, contribute to continued dropout rates. These factors make it difficult for young mothers to balance parenting responsibilities with academic commitments. The overarching implication is clear: teenage pregnancy is not just a personal issue but also a structural and societal one. Addressing it requires a multi-faceted approach that includes comprehensive sex education, accessible reproductive health services, school-based counselling, flexible learning arrangements for young mothers, and a shift in community attitudes to reduce stigma. Without these interventions, the educational futures of pregnant learners will continue to be prematurely curtailed, perpetuating cycles of poverty and dependence.

Participant S5’s narrative offers a poignant look into the compounded realities that teenage mothers face physically, emotionally, and academically when support systems are absent. Her account reflects how the biological challenges of pregnancy, such as morning sickness, fatigue, and body image concerns, directly interfere with regular school attendance and concentration. These difficulties are exacerbated when there is no responsive academic structure, such as adjusted timetables, flexible learning, or even basic empathy from teachers and peers:

“Being pregnant in high school was tough. I struggled with morning sickness, fatigue, and feeling self-conscious about my changing body. It became increasingly difficult to attend classes regularly, and I began falling behind in my coursework. Without support from the school or my family, I felt like I had no choice but to drop out”

The absence of both school- and home-based support reflects a critical systemic gap. Schools often lack designated programmes or policies to accommodate pregnant learners or young mothers, while families, in some cases, distance themselves due to shame or the added financial burden. As a result, the learner becomes isolated, emotionally overwhelmed and academically detached, eventually seeing dropout not as an option, but as the only available outcome. This narrative underscores the importance of creating inclusive, supportive educational environments that recognise the unique needs of pregnant learners. Interventions such as counselling, peer support groups, parental involvement, and flexible academic arrangements are not merely helpful; they are also essential for preventing school dropout among this vulnerable group. Without these structural adjustments, the education system inadvertently contributes to the marginalisation of teenage mothers, further deepening cycles of poverty and gender inequality. The concept of teenage pregnancy is highly linked to the idea of marriage, on the basis that the boys they learn with also likely share the same religious beliefs and views on marriage. Given the church’s dominance in the community, it can be inferred that many men are employed or financially stable. As a result, when a student becomes pregnant by someone who can provide for her, she is likely to leave school to raise the child, believing that continuing her education is no longer necessary.

7.3.3. Drug Abuse

Drug abuse has emerged as a significant issue in South Africa, contributing to the alarming rate of school dropouts. Drug abuse is a growing concern for South African high school learners, with many falling victim to the destructive cycle of addiction. As learners become increasingly vulnerable to the influence of drugs, many unfortunately fall into a destructive cycle that hampers their academic progress and personal development. The responses provided by participants in this study reflect a prevalent concern surrounding drug use and its devastating effects on learners’ education. This theme was echoed across multiple accounts, revealing a deep connection between drug abuse, disengagement from school and eventual dropout. Given the growing concern over drug abuse in South African schools, it is crucial to address the underlying factors contributing to this issue because societal and institutional responses are necessary to mitigate its effects. Participant T1 had this observation to share:

“Many of the learners who eventually drop out of school start with drug abuse…. They lose focus and interest in school, and drugs take hold of their lives, and they disappear from the schooling system”

Participant T1’s observation speaks to the gradual yet insidious nature of drug abuse and its direct link to disengagement from school. Initial experimentation with drugs can lead to a loss of interest and focus on academic responsibilities. Ultimately, it drives learners to leave the education system. This highlights the importance of early interventions to prevent the downward spiral that often begins with recreational drug use. Participant G1 had this to say:

“The streets are so full of younger generations called ‘amaphara1’ because they take shortcuts and drop out of school, which ends up involving them in drug abuse, crime and so on.”

Participant G1’s response extends the narrative of drug abuse into the broader socio-economic context, referring to the “amaphara” street gangs. These individuals are often a product of environments where drug abuse and crime become normalised, leading to dropping out of school and eventually, criminal behaviour. G1’s perspective underscores the need for community-based interventions that address not only the drug abuse but also the social conditions that foster such behaviours; however, this requires a multifaceted approach. Although some may argue that individual choices play a significant role, one cannot overlook the systemic issues at play, as these choices are deeply intertwined with those made by these young people.

Substance abuse continues to emerge as a critical factor contributing to school dropout, particularly in communities where access to drugs and alcohol is prevalent. The normalisation of drug use among high school learners creates a toxic environment that undermines academic engagement, discipline, and overall learner well-being. Once a learner becomes dependent, their priorities often shift, leading to declining performance, behavioural issues, and eventual disengagement from schooling. Addiction also impairs cognitive function, motivation, and emotional regulation, key components necessary for academic success. Moreover, many schools cannot offer effective rehabilitation or counselling support to help these learners recover and reintegrate. Participant G2 concurred with the views of their counterpart and stated the following:

“Drugs are the major challenges; it is a common thing to smoke or take alcohol in high school…. The challenge is that drugs take hold of many learners, and they drop out of school because they are now addicted and cannot function in a school environment”

Participant G2 reinforces the connection between drugs and school dropout, particularly emphasising the pervasiveness of drug use in high schools. For many learners, drugs become a coping mechanism for the challenges they face in their academic and social lives. G2’s comment suggests that drug addiction is a major barrier to educational success; however, once learners are addicted, their ability to function within the school system becomes severely compromised. Participant T 4 had this to say:

“Male students engage in gangsterism groups and are involved in drugs, which is another reason for them to be out of school”

Participant T4’s response sheds light on the gendered dimension of drug abuse, particularly among male students who are drawn into gangsterism and drug use. This highlights a significant social challenge, where male learners, often influenced by peer groups and gangs, become trapped in cycles of addiction and violence. The role of peer influence and external pressures in shaping young male behaviour is a crucial aspect to consider when addressing the issue of drug abuse and high school dropout rates, because it can lead to devastating consequences. Participant S6 stated the following:

“Drugs are a major problem… It is common for us as learners to use drugs, and the heavy users are dropping out of school”

Participant S10 shared the same sentiments and stated the following:

“Drugs are a major problem… It is common for us as learners to use drugs, and the heavy users are ending up out of school”

Participants S6’s and Participant S10’s responses align closely: both emphasise the ubiquity of drug use among learners. As these participants note, drug use is not only common but also increasingly linked to learners who drop out of school. The normalisation of drug use among students reflects a concerning trend, indicating the need for more effective education and support systems to deter drug abuse from an early stage. Participant P3 shared her concerns about drug abuse and stated the following:

“I am concerned about our children; they no longer take school seriously because they enjoy taking drugs… it starts by sneaking out of school and then eventually dropping out of school to spend time engaging in drugs”

Participant P3’s concerns highlight a growing parental awareness of the issue, as many learners seem to prioritise drug use over their education. This response emphasises the ripple effect of drug abuse, not only on learners but also on their families and communities. As these students slip further from academic success, the cycle of disengagement deepens, leaving them vulnerable to long-term consequences. Drug use has become a pervasive issue that contributes directly to school dropout; its prevalence among young learners is growing.

8. Discussion of Findings

This paper examines the challenges of school dropout through the context of community roles and peer pressure. The paper shifts to a more nuanced community- and culture-based lens, moving beyond an economic understanding of school dropouts. The case of rural South Africa undoubtedly offers a rich empirical background, with its extensive sociocultural and community interpretations of social issues such as school dropouts (Rugimbana and Mwila 2023). The community and peer environments in which learners grow up play a central role in shaping their attitudes toward education and, ultimately, their decisions to remain in or drop out of school (Mackatiani et al. 2022). Learners, parents, and teachers’ groups consistently highlighted the detrimental influence of certain peer groups. For example, learners reported that their peers often encouraged absenteeism, substance abuse, participation in illegal activities, and early sexual experimentation. These behaviours, although appearing as individual acts, were often linked to broader social patterns observable within the community (Fourie 2020; Ngidi and Moletsane 2023). These sentiments are strongly supported by Mthalane et al. (2021), who examined the psychological and behavioural impact of peer groups in under-resourced South African communities. Mayeza et al. (2022) found that adolescent learners often identify more strongly with peer identity than with school-based expectations, particularly when school environments lack support and inspiration. The learners in this study echoed this sense of disconnection from formal institutions, further exacerbated by community apathy toward education.

Communities characterised by high unemployment rates, substance availability, and intergenerational poverty form what Masuku et al. (2021) describe as “ecosystems of risk.” According to these scholars, such environments pose more than physical dangers; they also shape norms and expectations. For example, if most young males in the neighbourhood are unemployed or involved in crime, schooling is no longer viewed as a viable path to success. Lowder et al. (2022) elaborates on this by highlighting the absence of structured extracurricular or community engagement initiatives as a core contributor to youth disengagement from school. In the current study, participants repeatedly reported having few, if any, recreational alternatives in their communities. This lack of positive alternatives leaves learners idle after school, making them vulnerable to negative peer influence (Mthalane et al. 2021; Alexa and Baciu 2021). Idleness was associated with drinking, loitering, and even theft. Some felt pressure to become financially independent at an early age to meet social expectations within peer circles (Farcnik et al. 2022; Mokoena and van Breda 2021).

In communities where wealth is flaunted or where criminal activity is glamorised, school success may appear intangible or irrelevant. Peer groups that reinforce these values undermine the importance of long-term academic achievement (Mnyawami et al. 2022; Sing and Maringe 2020). However, not all peer influence observed in this study was negative. Several learners, particularly those who remained in school despite challenges, spoke about the encouragement they received from classmates or older siblings. These learners had role models among their peers, individuals who valued education and resisted community pressures. This nuance supports the findings of Fatimah et al. (2021), who argue that peer influence is a “double-edged sword” capable of promoting either deviance or resilience depending on the peer culture established.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory provides the theoretical framework for this finding. The microsystem, which includes peers and the immediate community, directly shapes individual behaviour and motivation. The findings from uMhlathuze Municipality strongly support this, indicating that peer and community influence is not peripheral but central to the learner’s educational journey. Learners are not isolated actors; their daily realities are shaped by relational networks that include friends, neighbours, and informal social norms. The interaction between different microsystems also plays a role. When peer groups interact with disengaged households or under-resourced schools, the resulting compound effect can be powerful (Mayeza et al. 2022). In such cases, dropout becomes the predictable outcome of systemic failure. From a policy perspective, the implications are clear. Programmes aimed at creating community-based youth clubs, after-school mentorship, and parental involvement initiatives can provide constructive alternatives to negative peer influence (Moscoviz and Evans 2022). Peer and community influences operate both as risk and potential resources. When left unchecked, these influences pull learners away from education, reinforce fatalistic mindsets, and normalise early dropout (Arnos and Acevedo 2023). However, when guided and positively framed, these same influences can foster resilience, build academic commitment, and create a culture of persistence (Tunguse et al. 2019). The current study reaffirms the call from the existing literature to invest in peer-led, community-based strategies that support learners holistically, not just academically, but also socially and emotionally.

Infrastructure-related challenges also featured prominently in the data. Learners and educators alike reported that their schools lacked the basic physical infrastructure necessary to support a conducive learning environment. Overcrowded classrooms, insufficient numbers of desks, malfunctioning toilets, and dilapidated school buildings were frequently cited. Nabugoomu (2019) acknowledges these deficiencies, noting that many schools in rural and peri-urban areas remain under-resourced, despite years of education reform. One teacher stated, “How can we expect learners to be motivated when the classroom roof is leaking, and there are 60 students in a room built for 30?” This comment reflects the daily frustration experienced by both learners and educators in underfunded schools. These infrastructural issues are not simply cosmetic; they have a profound psychological impact on learners. A school that appears neglected sends a message that education is not valued. According to Roman et al. (2022), poor school infrastructure can discourage attendance and foster a sense of hopelessness. Learners in this study expressed feelings of humiliation and disengagement due to the poor physical condition of their schools. This disengagement often precedes dropout, as learners become emotionally and mentally detached from the schooling process (Choe 2021; Rugimbana and Mwila 2023).

Another major challenge highlighted in the study is the lack of academic and emotional support. Learners reported that teachers were often unavailable or uninterested in their struggles. Some reported being labelled as failures or ignored when seeking help. This echoes the findings of Ngidi and Moletsane (2023), who emphasise that positive teacher–learner relationships are critical in fostering resilience and academic perseverance. Teachers acknowledged these shortcomings but attributed them to systemic issues, including overcrowded classrooms, excessive administrative tasks, and insufficient professional development. These systemic pressures limit their ability to provide individualised support. Liu et al. (2021) argue that the post-apartheid education system has overburdened educators with competing responsibilities, making it difficult to address learners’ diverse needs. This disconnection between learner expectations and teacher capacity creates an environment where learners fall through the cracks (Fatimah et al. 2021; Mukhopadhyay and Das 2021). Psychosocial challenges further compound the situation. Several learners spoke of traumatic experiences at home, including domestic violence, sexual abuse, parental alcoholism, and bereavement (Ngidi and Moletsane 2023; Mokoena and van Breda 2021). These experiences leave lasting emotional scars that affect concentration, motivation, and school attendance. As Mokoena and van Breda (2021) note, trauma and psychosocial distress can significantly impair cognitive functioning and increase vulnerability to dropout.

Gendered experiences of school dropout rates were also noted. While male learners often cited the need to find work or participate in traditional initiation rites, female learners frequently mentioned pregnancy, early marriage, and domestic responsibilities. This aligns with the findings of Jochim et al. (2021), who examined how societal gender norms impose different pressures on boys and girls, shaping their educational trajectories. In this study, female learners described being expected to help at home with chores or care for younger siblings, particularly in single-parent households. In many cases, these responsibilities took precedence over their schooling (Farcnik et al. 2022; Mokwena and Setshego 2021).

Teenage pregnancy emerged as a dominant reason for girls dropping out of school. One participant noted, “When I found out I was pregnant, I stopped going to school. I was ashamed, and my mother said it was time to grow up.” This sentiment reflects a broader societal narrative that associates motherhood with adulthood, effectively ending educational aspirations. Mayeza et al. (2022) similarly found that in many South African communities, early motherhood is normalised and even expected, particularly in contexts where alternative role models are scarce. While national guidelines encourage schools to accommodate pregnant learners and young mothers, implementation is at best patchy. Peer and teacher stigma further discourage a return to school. This double burden of institutional neglect and societal judgement creates a near-permanent exit from the education system for many young mothers (Mokhoro 2021; Choe 2021). Another significant challenge raised in the study was the absence of parental involvement in learners’ education. Parents, particularly in impoverished communities, are often preoccupied with work or survival-related tasks and may lack the education or confidence to engage with school processes. Moleko and Xulu-Gama (2024) found that many parents in underprivileged communities are disengaged from their children’s schooling, not out of apathy but also due to structural constraints. This finding was echoed by learners who stated that their parents “do not come to meetings” or “do not help with homework.”

Teachers lamented that the lack of parental accountability made it more difficult to monitor at-risk learners or to follow up on chronic absenteeism. As one educator explained, “We try to involve parents, but many phones are off, addresses change, or no one comes to meetings. You cannot help a child with isolation.” This challenge highlights the importance of family–school partnerships in combating school dropout. Without such collaboration, schools operate in a vacuum, unable to address the broader social context affecting learners. Some learners also mentioned experiences of bullying, both by peers and occasionally by teachers. These experiences were cited as contributing factors to emotional distress and eventual dropout (Pedditzi et al. 2022). Although this theme was less prevalent than others, it still merits attention. A hostile school climate can be especially damaging to already vulnerable learners. The absence of clear anti-bullying frameworks and enforcement mechanisms exacerbates the problem. Schools must cultivate inclusive and supportive environments to prevent this form of indirect exclusion (Klencakova et al. 2023; Samuel and Burger 2020).

9. Conclusions

The challenge of school dropout has long persisted, particularly in rural South Africa. Despite policy frameworks, school dropout rates have been rising, largely driven by sociocultural factors. The study found a lack of community support to ensure that learners remained in school, underscoring the crucial role of community presence. The community once had measures to address truancy and absenteeism. However, these appear to have disappeared due to a lack of community cohesion, leaving learners free to do as they wish. The study also observed, based on learners’ accounts, that peer pressure was a major reason for learners’ dropping out of school. The study reflects on the effect of drug abuse on dropout, and the need to make money is explained on the premise of peer pressure; learners put each other under the fear of missing out in schools and eventually dropping out. The first aspect is that learners who face academic challenges often drop out of school because they feel unable to change their circumstances. Rather than wasting time on what they perceive as a hopeless effort, they choose to pursue other activities. The study finds that, in many cases, exceptional learners performing at the highest level rarely drop out of school, unless there are other circumstances beyond academic performance.

Marriages and teenage pregnancies were the main causes of learner dropout affecting female learners. Regarding marriage, the area is predominantly Shembe, and the church emphasises its importance; young men are encouraged to marry as early as possible. Some of the schoolgirls then turn to marriage, leaving school to acquire additional skills in preparation for marriage outside the formal school system. There is a prevalence of teenage pregnancies, like the rest of the country, and many of the pregnant schoolgirls do not return to school to complete their studies due to stigma and the fear of embarrassment. The study established the impact of drug abuse, mainly on the boys, who tend to become addicted and find school boring and not conducive to their urges to take drugs. It was noted that community and pressure influenced the choices and educational trajectories of certain groups, particularly female learners. However, this relationship is complex. Learners must design personal workload management strategies to address the challenges of schoolwork. Just as there are community policing forums, such platforms can also be used to ensure that the whole community is engaged in monitoring their children and addressing antisocial behaviour that may lead to school dropouts.

10. Recommendations

The study recommends the following based on the findings.

10.1. School-Level Recommendations

The study recommends support groups as possible tools that learners can leverage to positively influence each other to focus on school and refrain from social ills that might affect their academic tasks. The support groups can also be inclusive of religious aspects, considering that the community in the study area has a strong religious background. Learners, especially girls, should be discouraged from viewing early marriage as a solution to economic or social pressures. Schools can implement mentorship programmes where older students or alumni who have pursued education before marriage share their experiences. Life orientation classes should include critical discussions on the long-term consequences of early marriage, helping learners understand that it often leads to missed opportunities and limits personal growth.

Schools can partner with local clinics and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to host regular awareness campaigns and confidential counselling services for students. Girls who are already pregnant should be encouraged to remain in school through flexible learning options and emotional support programmes. Furthermore, schools must establish partnerships with rehabilitation centres or community health services to ensure early intervention and support for learners struggling with addiction. Awareness talks from recovering addicts can also serve as powerful testimonials to discourage drug use. Teachers should adopt a mentorship approach, positioning themselves as role models and allies. By demonstrating respect, understanding and encouragement, teachers can build strong relationships based on mutual trust. Learners who perceive their teachers as approachable are more likely to seek help when faced with difficulties, while reducing the risk of disengagement or dropout.

10.2. Community-Level Recommendations

Community policing forums must be invoked and used in ensuring that the whole community is engaged and picking up any antisocial behaviour that will tend to result in school dropouts. Former students who are academically successful should be involved in honouring and motivating young learners, to ensure that learners visually appreciate education. Events such as community parties for learners who have passed should be done to make changes concerning the importance of education. Collaborating with community leaders and organisations to address socio-cultural barriers to education is very crucial. These partnerships can provide insights and support initiatives that promote educational attainment. It is trite for community leaders and parents to facilitate mentorship programmes or career guidance sessions that showcase successful individuals from similar socio-cultural backgrounds. This can inspire students and demonstrate achievable pathways beyond high school.

10.3. Sectoral-Level Recommendations

The Department of Basic Education must introduce prompt evaluation of warnings and monitoring through data-driven systems that monitor and track students’ attendance, performance and behavioural trends to identify and assist students at risk of withdrawal. To improve students’ school engagement, the department must establish adolescent/youth recreational centres with sport and educational activity offerings. This initiative can stimulate positive engagement for rural students by reducing exposure to volatile environments, where drugs and other risky behaviours capable of discouraging school take place. Lastly, the study recommends improving access to quality education in rural areas through school infrastructure, internet connectivity and digital learning programmes for attracting and retaining students.

11. Limitations of the Study and Further Studies

The social factors influencing dropout rates may differ in other regions or municipalities. The smaller sample size characteristic of qualitative research limits the extent to which findings can be applied to larger populations or different contexts. The findings of this study apply only to the context in which it was conducted. However, this limitation does not diminish the importance of the research; rather, it highlights the need for further studies to explore these complex interactions. A larger sample size could have captured a wider range of social influences, enhancing the robustness of the findings. The small sample size increases the risk of bias because the views and experiences of a few participants may not fully represent the broader population. Future research could address these challenges by incorporating mixed approaches, larger sample sizes and comparative analyses across multiple regions.