Exploring Barriers and Enablers for Women Entrepreneurs in Urban Ireland: A Qualitative Study of the Greater Dublin Area

Abstract

This research investigates the pivotal role of women’s entrepreneurship in urban Ireland. Utilizing a demand–constraint–choice framework for analysis, it explores the diverse motivations behind Irish women’s entrepreneurial ventures, emphasizing the impact of time- and place-specific factors. The study also assesses gender equality and disparities. This qualitative research presents a comparative analysis of motivations, perceptions, and experiences conducted through semi-structured interviews in Ireland’s diverse cultural and economic contexts. The findings highlight the influence of cultural factors on women’s entrepreneurial choices and the significance of government support systems. They underscore the necessity of proactive government intervention for gender-inclusive economic development, offering insights applicable beyond Ireland. Valuable for policymakers, researchers, and entrepreneurs, the findings enhance understanding of women’s entrepreneurial leadership, contributing to global strategies for empowering women in entrepreneurship. Several policy recommendations are provided.

1. Introduction

Entrepreneurship has emerged as a powerful force for economic development, innovation, and employment generation across global markets (Ayentimi 2020; Asgary et al. 2024). Beyond its economic function, entrepreneurship is increasingly recognized as a social process shaped by context, identity, and institutional dynamics (Ratten 2023). In this process, entrepreneurial leadership plays a pivotal role by facilitating vision-driven action, recognizing opportunities, and driving strategic innovation (Goncalves 2013; Gunawan and Cahayani 2022). Entrepreneurial leadership is not uniform, however—it varies by industry, culture, and gender, making it essential to explore how different groups experience and practice entrepreneurship.

In recent years, growing attention has been directed toward women entrepreneurs as a distinctive and influential segment of the entrepreneurial ecosystem. In advanced economies, such as Ireland, women-led ventures are increasingly contributing to innovation, job creation, and social impact. These entrepreneurs often pursue business ownership not merely out of economic necessity but as a pathway to independence, self-actualization, and professional fulfillment (Ahmetaj et al. 2023; Agarwal et al. 2020). However, women continue to encounter structural and institutional barriers—including unequal access to capital, persistent gender stereotypes, and limited representation in entrepreneurial networks (Ely and Thomas 2020; Kamberidou 2020; Andriamahery and Qamruzzaman 2022). These challenges shape the way women engage with entrepreneurship and influence the strategic choices they make as leaders.

Understanding the early-stage entrepreneurial journey of women is critical, particularly before their ventures are influenced by external actors such as investors, lenders, and formalized institutional processes. Early-stage women entrepreneurs are more likely to act autonomously and navigate entrepreneurship based on intrinsic motivations and immediate contextual constraints. Studying them in this phase allows researchers to uncover foundational factors that drive or hinder their entrepreneurial aspirations, free from the pressures and compromises that often emerge as businesses scale and stakeholders multiply (Goncalves and Gil Vasquez 2024).

This study focuses specifically on early-stage women entrepreneurs located in urban Ireland, with a geographic emphasis on the Greater Dublin Area. Urban contexts provide distinct infrastructural, cultural, and institutional environments that shape entrepreneurial opportunities and barriers. The decision to focus on an urban population acknowledges the significant differences between urban and rural entrepreneurial ecosystems, thereby avoiding the overgeneralization of findings that are inherently context-bound. The study examines how these women perceive and navigate the challenges, constraints, and choices involved in launching a business in an advanced economy where both opportunities and institutionalized gender barriers coexist.

Despite growing interest in women’s entrepreneurship, a noticeable gap remains in the literature regarding early-stage, urban-based female entrepreneurs in advanced economies, such as Ireland. Much of the existing research focuses on rural women in the Global South or generalizes the experiences of women entrepreneurs without considering the local context, stage of business, or structural variations. In particular, few studies have explored how women in urban, high-income environments confront and negotiate systemic biases, institutional limitations, and personal motivations at the outset of their entrepreneurial journeys. Furthermore, the existing literature tends to aggregate women’s entrepreneurial experiences into broad categories, limiting the visibility of context-specific nuances.

To address this gap, this study poses the following overarching research question: How do early-stage women entrepreneurs in urban Ireland perceive and navigate the demands, constraints, and choices associated with launching and leading a new venture? In responding to this question, the study aims to illuminate the motivations behind their entrepreneurial pursuits, the structural and cultural barriers they face, and how they exercise agency in shaping their business trajectories. By focusing on the voices of women in the Greater Dublin Area, the research offers insight into both the challenges and the enabling factors that characterize early-stage entrepreneurship in a highly developed, yet still gendered, economic environment.

2. Literature Review

Women entrepreneurs contribute to economic growth by establishing and maintaining their businesses. Research suggests that when women decide to start a business, they are motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors (Al Matroushi et al. 2020; Vardhan et al. 2020; Arshad et al. 2021). Two motivational factors influencing women to start a business have been identified: push and pull. Pull factors are considered intrinsic motivations, such as the desire for achievement, independence, and being one’s boss (Al Matroushi et al. 2020; Vardhan et al. 2020). In contrast, push factors are extrinsic motivators that arise from a lack of opportunity or necessity, such as the need for a better work–home balance and higher income (Smagulova and Goncalves 2023; Goncalves and Gil Vasquez 2024). Although both types of motivation drive women to start businesses, intrinsic motivation is deemed more critical (Karthikeyan 2020; Mulawarman et al. 2020). In the context of women’s entrepreneurship, intrinsic or pull motivational factors are believed to exert a greater influence than extrinsic or push factors (Yue and Lu 2022; Baber et al. 2023).

The motivation of women to initiate entrepreneurial endeavors can also be attributed to geographical location, indicating its specificity to a particular country. Previous research has investigated women’s motivations for starting businesses in advanced economies such as Australia (Newsome 2020; Smith and Cunha 2020), Canada (Cukier and Hassannezhad Chavoushi 2020), and Hong Kong (Franzke et al. 2022). Several studies also exist for emerging and transition economies, including Afghanistan (Wafeq et al. 2019), Bangladesh (Shoma 2019), China (Dewitt et al. 2022), Greece (Goncalves et al. 2025a); Iran (Goncalves et al. 2025b); Kazakhstan (Smagulova and Goncalves 2023), Kyrgyzstan (Астанoва 2020; Chong and Velez 2020), Lebanon (Goncalves et al. 2024), Malaysia (Hassan et al. 2020), Mexico (Goncalves and Gil Vasquez 2024), Saudi Arabia (Al-Kwifi et al. 2020; Goncalves et al. 2025b), Turkmenistan (Bayramov et al. 2023), Turkey (Ağır 2020; Bozoğlu Batı and Armutlulu 2020), Uzbekistan (Tashpulatova 2021), and the Latin America and Caribbean region (Alecchi 2020; Ruiz-Martínez et al. 2021). Studies suggest that women entrepreneurs face different challenges and opportunities compared to male entrepreneurs, with men having greater chances of becoming entrepreneurs than women in countries covered by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) reports (Brush et al. 2020; Figueroa-Domecq et al. 2020). However, these studies argue that women are more likely to pursue social and economic missions (Żur 2021).

According to scholars, women in advanced economies often choose self-employment to achieve independence and personal fulfillment. However, the gender gap in self-employment remains one of the most resilient issues in labor participation. This gap can be attributed to two primary factors: a lack of opportunities for self-employment among women and a preference for remaining in paid employment. Examining women’s individual resources is crucial for a deeper understanding of their motivations for entrepreneurship. Additionally, contextual factors, such as the prevailing gender regime and the country’s economic conditions, significantly contribute to women’s decisions to initiate entrepreneurial endeavors. Specifically, in dual-earner gender regimes, women are more inclined to pursue entrepreneurship driven by opportunities.

Moreover, in contexts marked by high levels of unemployment resulting from economic crises, there is a notable increase in women engaging in self-employment out of necessity (Goncalves 2015a, 2015b; Al Matroushi et al. 2020; Ferrín 2023). Existing research suggests that internal factors motivate women in advanced economies to start businesses. However, the drivers for women entrepreneurs in emerging economies vary, depending on the specific country and its unique circumstances. While some women in emerging economies start businesses for reasons similar to those in advanced economies, others do so out of necessity (Al Matroushi et al. 2020; Vardhan et al. 2020; Smagulova and Goncalves 2023; Goncalves and Gil Vasquez 2024). For instance, Irish women entrepreneurs receive informal support from their relatives, friends, and family members, indicating a positive societal attitude toward entrepreneurship (Coleman 2020; Hart 2021; Ogunjemilusi et al. 2021; Zeb et al. 2021).

Several drivers have been identified as promoting women’s entrepreneurship in Ireland (Adewuyi 2021; Costin et al. 2021; Jack et al. 2021; Sendra-Pons et al. 2022).

Access to finance: There have been increased funding opportunities and better access to finance for women entrepreneurs, including venture capital, angel investors (e.g., Conor Stanley, Brian Caulfield, Liam Casey, and Linda Kiely), government grants, and crowdfunding platforms such as Kickstarter, Indiegogo, Runner-up, Fundable, Crowdfunder, and Patreon. Crowdfunding enables broader participation and community support, while angel investors provide financial support and mentorship. Government grants and microloans can also provide financial assistance, particularly for women-owned businesses in underserved areas (Goncalves 2015a; Henry et al. 2022; Wang et al. 2022).

Cultural shift: Attitudes towards women in business in Ireland have changed, with greater recognition of the value of women’s contributions to the economy and society. This cultural shift has led to increased support for women entrepreneurs and their businesses (Coleman 2020; O’Connor 2020).

Education and training: Various educational and training programs are available to women entrepreneurs in Ireland, including business courses, workshops, and seminars, that provide essential skills, knowledge management, and sharing required for business success (Goncalves 2012; Li et al. 2020; O’Neill and O’Gorman 2020; Toledo et al. 2020; Cai et al. 2022).

Government support: The Irish government has implemented several initiatives to promote entrepreneurship among women, such as providing funding, mentoring, training programs, and addressing gender disparities, specifically tailored for women entrepreneurs, including those from the disabled community (Goncalves 2015b; Cooney 2022; Dowd 2021; Henry et al. 2022).

Networking opportunities: The availability of networking opportunities and support systems, such as women’s business groups and mentorship programs, helps to foster connections and provides guidance for women entrepreneurs (Stephens et al. 2022).

Overall, the drivers of women entrepreneurship in Ireland include a combination of specific entrepreneurial capabilities, such as education, managerial experience, teamwork, and leadership, which strongly influence the financial growth of enterprises. These entrepreneurs’ capabilities are leveraged to maximize financial gain rather than employment growth. Additionally, other factors contribute to the success of such women-led enterprises, including government support, changing cultural attitudes, increased access to resources, and a growing economy (Costin et al. 2021; Sendra-Pons et al. 2022). In practice, women entrepreneurs often overcome challenges with personal qualities like passion, ambition, self-confidence, perseverance, and determination to succeed and prosper (Rashid and Ratten 2020; Chatterjee et al. 2022).

A lack of comprehensive, in-depth empirical evidence remains regarding women entrepreneurs in advanced economies, particularly those with a high-level entrepreneurial orientation focused on innovation and opportunity. This gap in research is notable as the existing literature predominantly concentrates on women’s entrepreneurship within community-based or disadvantaged group settings (Goncalves and Ahumada 2025). However, several shared characteristics among women entrepreneurs have been identified in the current body of literature, including risk aversion, limited access to substantial financial resources, a perceived lack of motivation and education, the aspiration to initiate businesses, access to decision-making support, and adept utilization of networks (Kappal and Rastogi 2020; Llados-Masllorens and Ruiz-Dotras 2021; Nyanga and Chindanya 2021). In this regard, focused exploration of women’s entrepreneurship in advanced economies can significantly contribute to the existing literature by emphasizing the importance of context as a crucial dimension of analysis.

2.1. An Overview of Women and Entrepreneurial Leadership

Insufficient attention to the intersection of entrepreneurship and leadership has notably influenced the examination and representation of gender within entrepreneurship research. Scholars have advanced various arguments concerning entrepreneurship and gender, frequently framing womanhood and entrepreneurship as conflicting discourses within entrepreneurial identity (Mmbaga et al. 2020; Ahl and Marlow 2021). Some researchers have also noted that public opinion typically associates successful entrepreneurship with male rather than female qualities, leading to an incomplete understanding of the field (Williams et al. 2023a, 2023b; Hytti et al. 2024). While the media ignores or trivializes women’s entrepreneurship, an emerging rhetoric of the successful woman leader and entrepreneur is gaining prominence, becoming an increasingly heroic genre. This can be viewed as a response to the 2008 recession and the broader neoliberal framework, which positions women as key figures in economic recovery (Ferrín 2023).

However, other researchers argue that alternative entrepreneurship structures and distinct forms of gender exist (Webb et al. 2020). As a result, contextual approaches that consider the geographical and historical situatedness of gender and entrepreneurship may be necessary to address universalized gender discourses. Such gender gaps underscore the existence of historically marginalized, less powerful, and often underrepresented segments of the populace, including but not limited to females, members of ethnic minority groups, individuals identifying as LGBTQIA+, and persons from economically constrained conditions (Samdanis and Özbilgin 2020; Silverman et al. 2023; Ueno et al. 2023). These issues align with the core of United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5, which focuses on eradicating gender inequality and empowering women and girls. Attention should be focused on the need for inclusivity of historically marginalized and underrepresented groups, such as women, ethnic minorities, and LGBTQIA+ individuals, reflecting SDG 5’s commitment to dismantling the barriers of discrimination.

Therefore, adopting a social constructionist framework aligns with SDG 5’s call to re-evaluate societal norms that define and often constrain gender roles and leadership. It suggests that gender equality can be advanced by reshaping these contextual narratives and societal expectations. Furthermore, by emphasizing the significance of situational elements in analyzing women’s leadership in business, this study highlights the necessity of specific reforms to address economic disparities, advocating for equal rights to resources and opportunities that SDG 5 seeks to guarantee for all women, regardless of their socioeconomic backgrounds. Additionally, when examining the concept of leadership within women’s business ventures, using a framework grounded in social constructivism underscores the critical role of situational elements in this analysis (Zhang et al. 2022).

Various studies have emphasized gender differences in transformational leadership styles, which are vital for creating effective and sustainable organizations while contributing to innovative management and leadership practices (Goncalves 2013; Begum et al. 2022; Schiuma et al. 2022). Transformational leadership attributes, such as innovation and proactiveness, align well with entrepreneurial leadership (Sawaean and Ali 2020; Bilal et al. 2021). Women also tend to serve as influential role models in defining and communicating mutual expectations, rewards, and responsibilities (Bullough et al. 2022; Fernández et al. 2023). These dynamics foster an innovative and creative environment (Setini et al. 2020; Nabi et al. 2023), enhance teamwork and cooperation (Vize 2022; Han et al. 2023), promote a progressive learning environment and collaboration (Goncalves 2012; Wu and Wang 2023), and contribute to a positive organizational atmosphere (Zhang 2020).

Flexibility is essential for women entrepreneurs and leaders adjusting to family commitments (Huq et al. 2020; Kamberidou 2020). They often depend on support from co-entrepreneurs, family members, and networks around the enterprise to develop and foster social capital (Setini et al. 2020; Solanki et al. 2023). However, more research is needed to examine how gender relations are socially constructed within specific geographical and historical contexts.

2.2. Women Entrepreneurial Leadership Dynamics in Early-Stage Companies

The existing literature explores the gendered nature of leadership roles. It highlights how culturally constructed expectations around women’s behaviors and attitudes have institutionalized organizational gender distinctions (Bullough et al. 2022). Women leaders and entrepreneurs navigate and counter these expectations in their leadership roles (Bishu and Headley 2020; Teixeira et al. 2021; Hobbins et al. 2023). While individual-level characteristics are recognized as the primary enablers of entrepreneurship, little research explains how individuals establish themselves as influential leaders, and context plays a crucial role in shaping perceptions of effective leadership (Martin and Slepian 2021).

Individual-level characteristics are considered pivotal determinants of entrepreneurs’ behavior, particularly in startup ventures (Kruse et al. 2021; Rigtering and Behrens 2021). While the existing literature suggests that these individual traits can influence one’s leadership role, there is limited research that delves into the mechanisms through which individuals establish themselves as influential leaders. Scholars (Arshad et al. 2021; Shen and Joseph 2021) assert that incorporating gender as a key determinant of leadership and entrepreneurship is essential for comprehending these phenomena, as individual-level factors cannot be adequately explained alone. In addition, such a perspective must consider the role of constraint in engendering the perceived attributes of effective leaders and leadership.

The central issue that needs further investigation is how individuals interact with the context to develop leadership in entrepreneurial activities (Mulyana et al. 2022; Schiuma et al. 2022). Socio-emotional leadership styles encompass situational leadership communication, particularly during periods of radical change. Studies indicate that leadership roles can only be effectively developed through reciprocal interactions with other actors within the environment alongside supportive contextual structures (Goncalves 2013; Foldy and Ospina 2023; Koch et al. 2023). The role concept is shaped by demands and constraints, which impact individuals’ preferences and perceptions of their role and the latitude of discretionary choices available for the role in the specific context (Garavan et al. 2020; Smagulova and Goncalves 2023).

The role concept represents an amalgamation of prerequisites that individuals encounter within systems. Stewart (1982) argued that demands and constraints influence individuals’ preferences within a role. Personal views on the obstacles individuals encounter are instrumental in shaping how they perceive and interact with others, which, in turn, molds the discretionary aspects of their position. The degree of discretion linked to a given role hinges on individuals’ ability to impact their duties, limits, and responsibilities. The concept of leadership perception is complex, encompassing various attitudinal aspects such as its content, organization, purpose, and the broader societal backdrop. Individuals make decisions based on their perceptions of their capabilities within specific roles and the level of discretion associated with those roles, influenced by their ability to impact responsibilities, boundaries, and accountabilities (Garavan et al. 2020). Researchers explore the sources of role constraint, arguing that various personal and contextual factors influence decision-making (Botti et al. 2023; Sahoo and Goswami 2023). Nevertheless, there is an ongoing need for comprehensive models that account for leadership effectiveness, particularly among women entrepreneurs, by examining the complex interaction between contextual and individual determinants.

2.3. Contextualizing Women’s Entrepreneurship in Ireland

The trajectory of entrepreneurship in Ireland has been characterized by fluctuations over several decades, marked by varying levels of economic performance. In the twentieth century, Ireland experienced a period of subdued economic activity, recording the lowest performance among Western European countries. Subsequently, the nation witnessed significant economic growth during the Celtic Tiger years and beyond (Negra and McIntyre 2020; Flannery 2021; Armie 2022; Ó Gráda and O’Rourke 2022). Small businesses comprise 70.1% of total employment in Ireland’s non-financial business economy (European Commission 2019). In 2019, Ireland saw a growth of 36,300 entrepreneurs. According to the GEM (GEM 2021/2022), Ireland ranks the eighth most entrepreneurial nation worldwide and the fourth in Europe overall. However data show a decline in the number of small businesses in Ireland from 2020 to 2021, with the count decreasing to 254,228, reflecting a 3.8% decrease. Enterprise Ireland (2023) reports that the Irish government invested EUR 27 million in new early-stage enterprises, or startups, in 2022, representing a twofold increase in support for high-potential startups (HPSUs) by the Irish government.

Ireland has a well-developed support system for small businesses, consisting of 31 Local Enterprise Offices (LEOs) located within Local Authorities across the country. These offices are staffed by expert teams that offer practical advice and information relevant to early-stage companies and small businesses, serving as a gateway to a wide range of government and non-government support available to assist entrepreneurs with their business development. Furthermore, Ireland offers a comprehensive array of 170 government supports encompassing finance, management development, mentoring, and trade support to help entrepreneurs (Enterprise Ireland 2023). Among these supports are Business Incubation Centers (BICs) designed to foster the development and growth of new enterprises. This initiative aligns with the modern entrepreneurial ecosystem, a trend promoted by the European Commission (2019) across Europe (Hausberg and Korreck 2020). Around 500 businesses in incubation exist across Ireland, funded mainly by Enterprise Ireland, in thirty BICs (Enterprise Ireland 2023). BICs support startup enterprises with office accommodation, professional services, business mentoring, and network growth (Enterprise Ireland 2023). The objectives of BICs include economic development, technology transfer, commercialization, fostering entrepreneurship, and job creation. Nevertheless, BICs face challenges, especially regarding the sustainability of their programs. McLaughlin et al. (2022) argue that incubation centers cannot protect and nurture businesses from all obstacles, particularly those arising from the external business environment, although they positively impact controllable internal factors.

Researchers have argued that women face supply and demand barriers to securing financial capital (Villaseca et al. 2020; Adikaram and Razik 2023; Saluja et al. 2023). Supply-side barriers include investor preferences for specific industries, particularly those with a low representation of women-owned businesses, and networks that marginalize women entrepreneurs (Mahmood et al. 2022). Additionally, gender bias in the decision-making processes of banks and investors exacerbates these barriers (Villaseca et al. 2020; Malmström et al. 2023). Research indicates that lending terms are generally less favorable for women than for men (Villaseca et al. 2020; Bannò et al. 2023), which helps explain why women entrepreneurs tend to rely less on bank loans and debt, exhibiting significant discouragement, especially related to fears of loan denial and unsatisfactory lending experiences (Atkinson 2020; Ababa 2021).

Government policy and access to financial capital are essential elements of entrepreneurial ecosystems (Igwe et al. 2020). Similarly, gender equality is critical to entrepreneurial activity (Kamberidou 2020; Ayesha et al. 2021). UN Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG 5), which focuses on gender equality, asserts that gender equality is not only a fundamental human right but also a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous, and sustainable world (United Nations n.d.). Gender inequality, as identified in the existing literature, can be observed across various dimensions of entrepreneurial behavior in Ireland, encompassing societal attitudes, individual attributes, and entrepreneurial engagement. Notably, GEM’s dataset (GEM 2021/2022) is limited to early-stage entrepreneurial activity when considering gender-specific indicators. However, gender disparities in access to capital hinder entrepreneurship, enterprise expansion, and job generation in numerous innovation-driven economies. Recognizing perceived disparities between policy and implementation, industry associations, economic agencies, advocates, and scholars have been commended for their efforts in formulating gender-inclusive financing policies aimed at strengthening entrepreneurial ecosystems (Ozkazanc-Pan and Muntean 2021; Stoker et al. 2021; Braun 2022).

Policy discourse concerning women entrepreneurs aligns with both neoliberal and liberal feminist perspectives, framing the constraints faced by women at the individual and firm levels as problematic. Implicit in this framing is the notion that the primary objective of women’s entrepreneurship policy is to augment firm expansion and job generation. Women are depicted as deficient in capabilities compared to men, thus requiring remediation through training, education, and other interventions. Additionally, women’s enterprises are perceived as inadequate due to their small scale, presence in non-preferred industries, or insufficient focus on growth (Braun 2022; Heath et al. 2024).

Scholars (O’Reilly et al. 2023; Usman et al. 2024) emphasize that business entrepreneurs must consider a variety of infrastructure challenges, including legal, technological, institutional, financial, and sociocultural factors, when exploring entrepreneurship development in Ireland. The societal perceptions of gender roles significantly impact women entrepreneurs (Hamdani et al. 2023; Love et al. 2024). Despite the importance of contemporary influences on national development, traditional perspectives persist regarding women’s roles, including the view of women as caretakers of their immediate and extended families. Many see women’s entrepreneurial pursuits as conflicting with their familial duties, reflecting deep-rooted beliefs about gender roles (Yoong and Yoong 2020; Zhailaubayeva 2021; Lucero Jones 2023).

Despite the prevalent stereotype of women as family caretakers, the literature indicates that women in Ireland have played significant roles in initiating and managing small businesses intertwined with family ties and relationships. Scholars provide valuable insights into the involvement of women in establishing small-scale enterprises in the country, highlighting that women’s business endeavors are embedded within intricate webs of societal and familial connections, offering diverse forms of support such as physical, financial, and transactional assistance (Onyusheva and Meyer 2020; Freeman and Svels 2022; Crummy and Devine 2023). Ireland benefits from its formal and informal market structures, creating a favorable cultural environment for fostering entrepreneurship (Salvi et al. 2023; O’Brien and Cooney 2024).

2.4. Stewart’s Role Demand–Constraint–Choice Model

Rosemary Stewart (1982) introduced the Demand–Constraint–Choice (DCC) model to provide a comprehensive framework for analyzing jobs in three significant ways. The model examines the behaviors of individuals in managerial positions as they perform their duties, categorizing their choices as either discretionary or prescribed based on their perception of the demands and constraints of their roles. The minimum core of required tasks, activities, duties, and responsibilities that managers must perform is referred to as demands. Meanwhile, constraints are internal and external factors that limit what the role-holder can accomplish.

According to the DCC model, the interplay between role demands and constraints provides opportunities for choices, which are the behaviors that the role-holder can adopt. Role behavior reflects the individual’s response to perceived messages and their understanding of job requirements. Role expectations create demands and constraints for the role-holder, and their behavior offers insight into the degree of compliance with those expectations. Stewart argued that leadership effectiveness is determined by the applicability of the role-holder’s choices in each situation. The three choices described by Stewart include highlighting certain job factors, delegating tasks, and managing job boundaries.

The DCC model encompasses various demands and constraints experienced by leaders at different levels, including micro-, meso-, and macro-levels (Stewart 1982; Kakabadse et al. 2020). Furthermore, the model emphasizes the importance of contextual awareness in leadership effectiveness. Given the layered and context-specific nature of women’s entrepreneurship, especially in advanced economies where gendered institutional environments still shape access to resources, networks, and legitimacy, the DCC framework offers a structured yet flexible approach to interpreting how women perceive and respond to opportunities and obstacles. Its emphasis on agency within constraint-laden environments aligns well with the lived experiences of women navigating early-stage entrepreneurship in urban Ireland, where they must reconcile personal goals with institutional, cultural, and structural realities. As such, the DCC framework provides a robust conceptual foundation for examining the nuanced decisions women make as they initiate and grow their ventures.

2.5. Women-Led Entrepreneurism in Ireland

According GEM (2021/2022) data, entrepreneurship among young Irish people has risen significantly. The rate of new business owners and early-stage entrepreneurs among adults aged 18 to 64 has remained stable from 2019 to 2021. However, there has been a relatively high increase in business closures among entrepreneurs and owner–managers compared to other countries. In 2021, the number of people aspiring to start a new business in the next three years was high, similar to 2019. Employment growth aspirations have declined significantly, but the market focus remains unchanged, with 58% of entrepreneurs focused solely on the Irish market. The rate of women who are early-stage entrepreneurs has increased each year since 2018, while the involvement of men in high- to medium-technology sectors has declined. At the same time, women’s participation in early-stage entrepreneurship has increased, leading to a substantial reduction in the gender gap between men and women, now at a ratio of 1.2 to 1.

The GEM’s (2021/2022) data also indicate that while men and women expect to become employers, a higher percentage of men, as business owners, aim for high growth (24% versus 17% among women). In Ireland, the majority of new women business owners (54.5%) are primarily engaged in consumer services and are underrepresented in high- and medium-technology sectors. Additionally, they tend to focus more on the domestic market compared to their male counterparts. There has been a significant increase in the number of informal investors in Ireland, which compares favorably with other advanced economies. The ease of starting a business in Ireland and an optimistic outlook for entrepreneurial opportunities are also high, especially considering that the rate of entrepreneurship being regarded as a positive career choice has also increased. Over three in five Irish entrepreneurs strive to minimize their business’s environmental impact, while over half aim to maximize their social impact (GEM 2021/2022).

About 13 out of 100 adults aged 18–64 are early-stage (startup) entrepreneurs, indicating that 8 out of 100 are new entrepreneurs actively starting an enterprise, and 5 out of 100 have recently started a business, resulting in more than 40,000 new entrepreneurs each year (GEM 2021/2022; Azadnia et al. 2022). According to GEM (2021/2022), Ireland’s startup activity rate in 2021 was similar to pre-COVID in 2019, about 12.4%. As illustrated in Figure 1, Ireland has a high rate of startup entrepreneurs, at 12.5%, surpassing many advanced economies in the EU, including France (7.7%), Germany (6.9%), and Italy (4.8%). However, research (GEM 2021/2022; Vārpiņa et al. 2023) indicates that Ireland’s startup activity is lower compared to Latvia (15.1%) and the Netherlands (14.2%) while being comparable to the United Kingdom (12.6%).

Irish culture strongly supports entrepreneurial activity, with over 80% of the population being successful entrepreneurs (GEM 2021/2022; Giambartolomei et al. 2021). In 2021, 67% of the population believed entrepreneurship was a good career choice, up from 55% in 2018, indicating increased support for entrepreneurship. According to researchers (Fackelmann and De Concini 2020; GEM 2021/2022), Ireland ranks above the EU average and just ahead of the US in societal support for entrepreneurship, citing three primary reasons for becoming entrepreneurs: building significant wealth or getting rich (59%), making a difference in the world (58%), and earning a living due to job scarcity (56%). The percentage of early-stage entrepreneurs stating that they needed to make a living because jobs were scarce significantly increased from 41% in 2019, likely due to the effects of the pandemic. Irish entrepreneurs rank fourth in Europe in starting a business to become wealthy and fifth for those who want to make a difference in the world (GEM 2021/2022; Kayanan 2022). Entrepreneurs from affluent countries, such as Norway, Sweden, and Luxembourg, are the least concerned about job scarcity. The most significant example is Slovakia, where 90% of early-stage entrepreneurs reported starting a business because jobs were scarce (GEM 2021/2022; Giambartolomei et al. 2021).

2.6. Challenges Faced by Irish Women Entrepreneurs

The current startup funding system puts women entrepreneurs at a clear disadvantage. A study by the Boston Consulting Group (2018) revealed that women entrepreneurs generate higher revenue than their male counterparts despite receiving less financial investment. The findings indicated that women-owned startups generated USD 0.78 in revenue for every USD 1 of investment, compared to USD 0.31 generated by startups led by men (Boston Consulting Group 2018). Despite gender disparities, startups founded by women entrepreneurs performed better over time, generating 10% more cumulative revenue over five years (Abouzahr et al. 2018).

The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls by 2030, advocating for equal opportunities across all societal and economic sectors (Monaco 2024). Europe is steadily progressing toward this key objective. However, despite a growing interest among European citizens in starting businesses, women entrepreneurs continue to be underrepresented and underfunded. This disparity is concerning, as entrepreneurship is a vital driver of innovation and growth in global society. The situation in Ireland is no different, as there is a significant need to improve access to finance for women-led businesses (Fackelmann and De Concini 2020). Despite representing a small fraction of financing deals and investment flows, women-led companies are experiencing an increasing share of these activities. However, the funding environment remains distorted by structural inequalities and enduring biases (Gompers et al. 2020; Chancel et al. 2022).

The European Commission (EC), inaugurated in December 2019, has prioritized gender-smart investing as a key policy objective. EU policies, initiatives, and upcoming financial mechanisms are being formulated with a gender-focused approach to foster the emergence of a more substantial cohort of female entrepreneurs equipped with the resources and capabilities necessary for business expansion. It is equally crucial to ensure that investors recognize the advantages of directing investments toward women-led enterprises and to cultivate and empower a cohort of female investors. Gender equality is upheld as a fundamental value in the EU treaties (European Commission n.d.). Ensuring gender equality is not only a matter of fairness and social justice, but it is also essential for improving economic outcomes and enhancing research and innovation performance. Unfortunately, biases against women in research and innovation persist, negatively impacting their careers and diminishing their chances of success. Furthermore, these biases contribute to a lack of recognition of the systemic nature of gender inequality.

Analysis of women’s entrepreneurship in Ireland reveals a gender gap. Recent data in Figure 2 indicates an upward trend in early-stage entrepreneurial activity rates among women in Ireland (Sendra-Pons et al. 2022). Specifically, this rate increased from 7.5% in 2018 to 9% in 2019 and further to 11.3% in 2021, positioning Ireland as the third-ranking European country in this regard, trailing behind only the Netherlands and Latvia. Conversely, the early-stage entrepreneurial activity rate for men experienced a slight decline from 15.9% in 2019 to 13.7% in 2021 (compared to 11.9% in 2018). Notably, Ireland’s early-stage entrepreneurial activity rate remains higher than the European average for both men and women (GEM 2021/2022; Sendra-Pons et al. 2022). In most countries, the rate of early-stage entrepreneurship is higher among men than women, except in Spain. While Norway (2.5:1) and Sweden (2:1) exhibit the most significant gender gaps, Ireland has narrowed its gap to its lowest point, with a ratio of 1.2:1, compared to 1.8:1 in 2019 and 1.6:1 in 2018. This ratio now matches that of the United States and France, although these countries differ in their rates of entrepreneurship for both men and women. On average, 2000 men and 1400 women start new businesses monthly in Ireland (GEM 2021/2022).

Bankers and investors increasingly recognize the necessity of opening access to financing for women entrepreneurs as both an ethical and social imperative, as well as a catalyst for sound economic practices. Women lead only one-third of the world’s small enterprises in the formal sector, with significant variations among countries, presenting considerable potential for growth, especially in Africa. Goncalves (2015b) argued that investing in women provides some of the highest returns on investment (ROI) opportunities. It is both economically and strategically beneficial to offer women entrepreneurs equal chances for success, particularly in the technology and innovation sectors. Women often face substantial obstacles in obtaining funding for businesses in these fields (Goncalves 2015a; Ubfal 2024).

Unlike their male counterparts, Irish women entrepreneurs focus more on the consumer services sector (64%) than their male counterparts (46%) (Stephens et al. 2022). Regarding their expectations for employment creation, women entrepreneurs were less optimistic in 2021 than in 2019. The rates remain relatively high, with 69% of women expecting to become employers (GEM 2021/2022), but they have lowered their expectations for business and employment growth, decreasing from 24% in 2019 to 18% in 2021.

Irish men and women entrepreneurs differ in their perceptions of opportunities and belief in the skills and knowledge required to start a business. The ratio of male to female owner–managers of established enterprises is higher, almost two to one (1.9:1), than among early-stage entrepreneurs. In addition, while two-thirds of Irish male entrepreneurs (66%) believe in having the necessary skills and knowledge to start a business, less than half (49%) of their women counterparts have this self-belief, even though women are more educated at a higher level than men (GEM 2021/2022).

3. Research Methods and Approach

The research methodology employed in this study is grounded in a social constructionist ontology and interpretive epistemology (Landi 2023). This approach recognizes that entrepreneurial leadership is inherently gendered, operating under the premise that the perceptions and experiences of women entrepreneurial leaders are socially constructed and shaped by context-specific choices and constraints (Ince-Yenilmez 2021; Nordbø 2022; Rodriguez et al. 2023). It is based on a qualitative analysis of women’s entrepreneurship in Ireland, exploring its dynamics and attempting to understand the phenomenon without preconceived hypotheses, focusing instead on the well-being of women entrepreneurs and gender equality, informed by the collected data of reality (Mohajan and Mohajan 2022). For semi-structured interviews, a purposive snowball sampling method was utilized to select a population sample of fourteen women entrepreneurs (as detailed in

Table 1. Profile of Irish women entrepreneurs interviewed.

Identifier	Age	Education	Leadership Role	Experience Yrs.	Industry
Interviewee 1	45	University	Owner	5	Recruitment
Interviewee 2	30s	University	Owner	3	Philanthropy/ Partnerships
Interviewee 3	40s	University	Owner	5	Bookkeeping
Interviewee 4	40s	University	Co-Founder	4	Healthcare
Interviewee 5	50	MBA	Owner	25	Business Consulting/ Author
Interviewee 6	30s	University	Owner	4	Children’s Educational Product
Interviewee 7	40s	University	Owner	3	Children’s Educational Product
Interviewee 8	50s	University	Owner	10	Finance
Interviewee 9	60	University	CEO	8	Solar Energy
Interviewee 10	30	MBA	Owner	5	Digital Marketing
Interviewee 11	50s	MBA	Owner	15	Cyber Security
Interviewee 12	50s	University	CEO/Founder	22	Digital Meetings/Female Entrepreneurship
Interviewee 13	30s	University	Self-Employed	10	Innovation Events
Interviewee 14	50s	University	CEO/Founder	2	Business Development Tech

Source: compiled by the authors.

) from startups as well as micro and small enterprises, aiming to capture comprehensive insights into the perceptions and experiences of women leaders within the entrepreneurial landscape within the Greater Dublin Area, including Dublin City, South Dublin, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown and Fingal, Meath, Kildare, and Wicklow, and as of 2022, its estimated population is 2,073,459 (Dublin City Council 2023). The sampling involves recruiting or referring new participants to existing respondents, making it a form of purposive sampling (Khan 2020; Hiebl 2021; Obilor 2023). However, in this study, the selection of the sample was driven by the primary research question: What drives women entrepreneurship in Ireland, and how do they deal with role demands, constraints, and make choices?

3.1. Research Criterium

This study specifically focuses on women entrepreneurs operating in urban contexts, with all 14 participants based in the Greater Dublin Area. The decision to limit the scope to urban entrepreneurship was intentional, as urban environments offer distinct infrastructural, institutional, and sociocultural dynamics that shape entrepreneurial experiences differently from rural contexts. By concentrating on urban-based entrepreneurs, the research aims to generate insights that are contextually specific and analytically coherent. Consequently, the findings are not intended to encompass rural settings, where entrepreneurial motivations, resource access, and policy impacts may diverge significantly. This distinction is important for ensuring internal validity and for laying the groundwork for future comparative studies across urban–rural divides.

The research population sample was selected based on the criteria of being an early-stage or startup entrepreneurial organization with women in leadership positions, identified through the researchers’ professional networks and/or LinkedIn. Only women who were exerting leadership in entrepreneurial settings were eligible to participate in the semi-structured interviews. Not all business activities were considered equivalent to entrepreneurial activity in this study; only those in which the interviewee had a leadership role, had founded the business, and had at least one supervisee. The decision to focus exclusively on early-stage or startup entrepreneurial organizations led by women was driven by the intent to capture the foundational motivations, constraints, and choices that shape the initial entrepreneurial journey. At this stage, women entrepreneurs are more likely to act independently, with limited external influence from stakeholders such as lenders, venture capitalists, or regulatory bodies that often accompany business growth. By focusing on this early phase, the study aims to gain a deeper understanding of how gendered experiences, personal agency, and institutional environments interact before scaling pressures, formalized governance, and financial dependencies alter the dynamics. This approach allows for a clearer analysis of intrinsic and structural barriers without the confounding effects introduced in later stages of business development.

Another criterion for selecting interviewees was evidence of active leadership roles among these women. They perceived themselves as entrepreneurs, whether as sole proprietors, leaders of startups, or part of a leadership team focused on business improvement and innovation. The study prioritized understanding the women’s entrepreneurial capacity to conceive and implement their ideas within their leadership roles and in their respective contexts. Additionally, the selection criteria required at least three years of experience in upper management roles, such as executive positions, senior management, executive officers, directors, partners, owners, or comparable positions (Khan 2020; Hiebl 2021; Obilor 2023).

In this study, written informed consent and the respective signatures from the lead researcher and all participants were obtained before the semi-structured interviews began. The consent form clearly outlined that the interviews were non-invasive and posed no risk to the participants. It also stated that participants were free to withdraw from the interview at any time without consequences. The confidentiality and anonymity of each participant were rigorously maintained to ensure that personal identifiers were entirely removed from the transcripts and analyses. This study did not require approval from an institutional review board, as the interview questions strictly pertained to business practices and decision-making processes, avoiding personal or sensitive topics.

The interview protocol was developed using insights from the literature review and the researchers’ prior experience with similar research conducted in emerging and advanced economies across various contexts. Subsequently, the thematic-based questions were refined. Participants in the study were asked to engage in discussions and introspection regarding their entrepreneurial experiences in Ireland and related endeavors. While Stewart’s DCC model served as the framework, it was essential to explicitly introduce and emphasize this model to the research respondents during both the survey and semi-structured interviews. Instead of directly inquiring about their perceived role demands and associated obligations, participants were encouraged to reflect on the nature of their responsibilities and the level of accountability involved. Likewise, the study examined role constraints, defined as influences that restrict the actions of a job holder, by inviting respondents to consider any challenges they faced while fulfilling their roles. Furthermore, participants were prompted to contemplate the choices available to them, including the activities they might undertake in light of their respective demands and constraints, by reflecting on the rationale behind their chosen activities and the decision-making processes involved (Stewart 1982; Hiebl 2021; Obilor 2023).

This study adopts Stewart’s DCC framework as its primary theoretical lens to analyze the entrepreneurial experiences of early-stage women entrepreneurs in urban Ireland. The DCC framework is particularly well-suited for this research, as it emphasizes the interplay between individual motivations (demand), external and internal barriers (constraints), and the resultant actions or strategies (choices) that individuals make during their entrepreneurial journeys. A structured set of qualitative questions based on the DCC framework was used during the semi-structured interviews to gain a deeper understanding of the themes and trends identified in the research.

Most interviews were conducted digitally, recorded, and transcribed via Microsoft Teams, Zoom, or Google Meet, while a few were conducted in person by one of the researchers, who is knowledgeable about Irish culture. After transcription, responses were coded and analyzed using NVivo and Microsoft Excel, where recurring responses were identified and categorized based on their frequency. The data preparation process involved a comprehensive review of the questions, editing, coding, transcription, data cleaning, and adjustment, as well as selecting an appropriate data analysis approach. The primary objective of the data preparation phase was to optimize the datasets for effective use by mining tools, thereby enhancing the extraction of valuable information (Miles et al. 2020).

3.2. Research Process

The research process included several stages: data collection, cleaning, preparation, coding, categorization, visualization of representative data, and a thorough verification process to ensure data accuracy, interpretation, and conclusion formulation (Monaro et al. 2022; Wilkinson and Dokter 2023). To maintain participant confidentiality, interviewees were assigned pseudonyms. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were selected as the primary data collection method due to their ability to elicit rich, detailed narratives (Renjith et al. 2021). These semi-structured interviews took place during the summer of 2023, with each lasting approximately thirty to forty-five minutes. As one of the researchers is native to the Irish culture of the interviewees, the study was able to effectively capture emic themes and the participants’ perceptions of leadership roles. This cultural familiarity facilitated thorough probing, clarification, and feedback during the interviews. Rich narratives within the social constructionist paradigm are considered effective for understanding the complexities associated with high-level positions (Jones et al. 2021; Bradley-Cole et al. 2023). The data were analyzed using thematic analysis within the context of Stewart’s DCC framework, enabling the identification of recurring, prominent, or significant themes from the raw data (Christou 2023). This analytical method aimed to reveal consistent patterns and common tendencies regarding the demands, constraints, and preferences reflected in the interviewees’ lived experiences despite variations in their professional backgrounds.

The process of data coding unfolded in three distinct stages. Initially, the data was organized into thematic segments, with recurring themes identified and coded through a meticulous examination of the transcripts, allowing categories to emerge from the text itself rather than being imposed externally (Neale 2021; Gao and Chugh 2023). Subsequently, axial coding was executed using MAXQDA, where the themes’ axes were scrutinized to develop broader categories (Mohajan and Mohajan 2022). Finally, the broader categories were analyzed within the theoretical framework of Stewart’s DCC model, focusing on particularly insightful or hypothetically intriguing content for this study’s researchers. The DCC framework was adopted as a strategy to organize lower-level coding, with role demands, constraints, and choices characterized as main categories.

4. Research Findings and Analysis

The data analysis underscores the importance of DCC in shaping the leadership roles of Irish women entrepreneurs. Furthermore, these three dimensions are intricately interconnected and mutually influential in the expression of leadership among women entrepreneurs, illustrating a (Smith 2024; Johnson and Patel 2021; Williams et al. 2023a, 2023b). Figure 3 depicts a word cloud listing the main themes extracted from the semi-structured interview transcripts.

While acknowledging the non-generalizability of interview outcomes due to a limited sample size, a distinctive emphasis among Irish women entrepreneurs emerged, highlighting their dedication to work and business pursuits, as well as the inherent constraints associated with their roles as mothers, wives, and family caretakers, manifested through various channels. Throughout the data analysis, diverse thematic elements surfaced, primarily focusing on entrepreneurial ventures, being an entrepreneur, innovation, stakeholder concerns, and security. The ongoing challenges and limitations related to childbearing, spousal dynamics, and family responsibilities were also present but not central to the interviewees’ primary concerns.

Decisions made by these Irish women entrepreneurs often reflected circumstantial necessities, particularly when limited choices were available, especially in contexts related to their children’s and family’s well-being. They prioritized work and business demands, strategically utilizing their entrepreneurial activities to secure financial resources for family and professional stability. Thus, their active engagement in work activities to foster their businesses became evident, driven by the imperative to improve their living conditions despite the challenges and constraints they faced. Additionally, considerations for work–life balance were apparent, with a strategic adoption of leadership roles to reconcile professional obligations while acknowledging the importance of nurturing and sustaining family connections. This work-centric approach underscores the intricate interplay between their entrepreneurial pursuits and family dynamics, emphasizing the nuanced relationship they must navigate between entrepreneurship and the holistic well-being of their families within the Irish sociocultural context.

4.1. Stewart’s DCC Framework Analysis

The analytical framework of Stewart’s DCC model was utilized to examine the manifestation of leadership among women entrepreneurs in Ireland and the impact of role demands, constraints, and choices on their leadership experiences (Stewart 1982; Johnson and Patel 2021; Williams et al. 2023a, 2023b). The analysis focused on understanding how these women leaders perceive their roles and assess their performance success while navigating the demands, constraints, and choices inherent in their entrepreneurial context.

4.2. Analyzing Role Demands

The interviewees underscored the significance of leadership demands, asserting that they are instrumental in determining effectiveness. While they experienced diverse demands, a common thread—considering increased globalization, technological advancements, and interconnectedness—was that greater alignment of values and leadership is needed, requiring their increased participation and impact in navigating business and organizational challenges and fostering success, which is supported by extant research (Liu et al. 2022; Karneli 2023). A crucial demand highlighted was attaining results aligned with specific goals and objectives, marking a central aspect of their perspectives.

I have set goals and ambitions that I constantly visit and revisit for my business. For as long as I’ve worked for myself, I have never managed to get all my clients online in line with my fitting into their goals and ambitions.

(Interviewee 1)

Oh, for me, in the past, [goals and objectives] have been very customer-focused. We would work off what our customers wanted and get their feedback, which would also align with my values.

(Interviewee 3)

There’s not a lot of financial support. We have what’s called a local Enterprise office, which will help you set up your [business] start up, your own business and your business plans and setting goals, getting funding if you need it, from banks and microloans and things like that. But there are good women in business groups here.

(Interviewee 12)

From their vantage points in leadership roles, interviewees emphasized the pivotal need to effectively navigate challenging situations. This concept is supported by the existing literature, particularly in contexts marked by investment and socioeconomic transformations, as exemplified in Ireland. Leaders facing high role demands often grapple with increased stress and burnout, jeopardizing their decision-making abilities and hindering effective team communication (Aurangzeb et al. 2023; McMullen 2023). Additionally, excessive demands can lead to role overload, impeding a leader’s capacity for strategic thinking and long-term planning (Jackson 2021; Mander and Antoni 2022). Proficiency in handling difficulties enables leaders to provide credible insights into new realities and propose viable structures for organizational actors and entrepreneurs.

I’m a mother of 3 kids. So that’s very demanding, you know. And so it’s been able to have the support of my husband. You know, there to be able to do a school pick up, or whenever I just can’t be there for the kids.

(Interviewee 8)

So, I had acquired this business, and trying to grow it was actually a constant challenge because I was struggling to get access to it. This is way before nowadays, we all think. And the funny thing is that for my international recruitment agency, I’m the only one that lives in Ireland.

(Interviewee 11)

… if you’re watching those numbers move up, how can you get completely engrossed in that and like challenge yourself to just keep growing the numbers based on the analytics?

(Interviewee 14)

These discussions with these Irish women entrepreneurs unveiled a comprehensive understanding of role demands, encompassing financial and non-financial outcomes related to their startup investments. The interviewees illustrated this viewpoint by highlighting the intricate link between non-financial returns, demands, and overall performance.

I’ve got lots of support. There’s nice support here. Now, because it’s seen as a service industry. There’s not a lot of financial support.

(Interviewee 6)

… I remember having one particular; she reached the director level in another company that I owned, and I was fortunate enough to sell out a number of years back, which treated me well financially.

(Interviewee 11)

There are people who thought there were people who had given up the security of a salary to take a risk and then hopefully take part in a reward, financial reward…But I didn’t actually think of that at all in those days. I had access to financing and funding if I wanted it. So, [being in business], it wasn’t about that.

(Interviewee 12)

I think I’m very outcome-focused. So, if what I’m hearing sounds like the outcome sounds all right, even if it’s coming from somebody who might not have the business maturity to know how actually to do it.

(Interviewee 3)

The interviewees perceived role demands through the lens of positive leadership traits, defined by the deliberate integration of leadership attributes, business processes, and intentional behaviors to enhance the progressive capacitation of leaders, cohorts, and organizations in various contexts (Fischer and Sitkin 2023; Redín et al. 2023). In line with the existing literature, positive leadership was recognized for adding value by enhancing the context, process, or outcomes within its operational sphere (Musenze and Mayende 2023). Notably, among the participants, a profound sense of accountability to supporters, partners, and stakeholders was pivotal in establishing a connection between role demands and the pursuit of self-actualization.

I don’t have a leadership role there yet. But I can see [its importance and] my entrepreneurial leadership spirit coming through because I’ve identified a new diversification [and inclusion] strategy for the company.

(Interviewee 5)

… you do need support. And we’ve kind of ploughed in our own resources and money. But another very important thing is you [as a leader].

(Interviewee 6)

The findings show that the resilience of women entrepreneurs pertains to their capacity to adeptly navigate and adapt to the challenges, setbacks, and adversities inherent in their dynamic businesses. It encompasses the skill to endure, recover from, and constructively respond to the stressors, uncertainties, and failures associated with entrepreneurial pursuits. This resilience involves a blend of psychological and emotional fortitude, persistence, and an adaptive mindset that empowers them to rebound from setbacks, extract lessons from experiences, and maintain their dedication to the demands of entrepreneurship (Birsan et al. 2022; Liyanagamage et al. 2023). Interviewees shared the importance of relying on support from mentors and other groups geared toward women during the initial stages of launching their business.

I think this is where you have to see a range of what I call supporters, mentors that you can discuss the ways around.

(Interviewee 5)

[I am] a great believer in having, you know, a support group, I think, for women particularly. It’s very important. and that you talk things through.

(Interviewee 7)

I think resilience is really important, but I certainly found great support. People might not even think their supporters are mentors or whatever.

(Interviewee 14)

This study’s findings underscore two critical themes within women’s entrepreneurial leadership, prompting further inquiry. First, they emphasize the crucial role of affective competencies—encompassing emotional intelligence, trust-building, effective interpersonal communication, and inspiration—in contributing to entrepreneurial success. This shift signifies a departure from competency-based leadership rooted solely in historical performance, highlighting the growing importance of navigating the complexities of contemporary business.

Secondly, the findings highlight the significance of interpersonal relational abilities exhibited by women entrepreneurs in Ireland. These qualities, such as emotional intelligence, trust building, effective interpersonal communication, and inspiration, are pivotal in today’s business landscape (Paliszkiewicz et al. 2023; Ylisirniö 2023). In contrast to competency-based leadership, the relational qualities possessed by the interviewees introduce innovative and relevant approaches for future outcomes. While nearly forty percent of the interviewees were unmarried or divorced, the extent to which women entrepreneurs in Ireland receive support from their spouses can vary based on individual circumstances and relationships. Although the results of this study cannot be generalized due to its small sample size, while some Irish women entrepreneurs may rely on the support of their spouses, offering various forms such as emotional encouragement, practical help, or financial backing, this was not predominantly the case in the sample. Moreover, factors such as the nature of their business, the dynamics of their relationship, and the personal preferences of both partners may have influenced their level of support.

Recent studies indicate that social or spousal support can significantly contribute to a woman’s entrepreneurial success, highlighting how spouses can assist by providing emotional support, offering advice and networking opportunities, supplying financial resources, sharing household responsibilities, and minimizing interference with the business (Noor et al. 2022; Prabawanti and Rusli 2022; Awotoye and Stevens 2023). However, it is crucial to recognize that individual experiences may vary, and the data from this study is inconclusive regarding whether women entrepreneurs in Ireland receive support from their spouses. Societal and cultural shifts may also influence evolving expectations and dynamics within relationships, impacting the level and nature of support women entrepreneurs receive from their spouses in Ireland.

And again, you know, I was always very lucky in that sense, and you know my husband’s very, very supportive, but my parents as well.

(Interviewee 14)

My husband and kids were happy, but whether they were happy, they understood [and supported] us, and you know we were able to manage it. But it was a... It was a difficult time.

(Interviewee 5)

Okay, so if you are a separated woman, you are in limbo because you couldn’t make it to the break. Women couldn’t really work, and there were certain jobs. There were marriage bars, all this type of stuff. So, a married woman had no support.

(Interviewee 6)

We didn’t get changed from the eighties, so a married woman’s dumb as I was ever your husband was. So, if your husband went to the UK. You are now in the UK even though you weren’t physically there. And so what you had to do was declare yourself a deserted wife, and the stigma and all of the things that came with that.

(Interviewee 7)

While extant studies suggest that a positive attitude from spouses positively impacts women’s entrepreneurial success, the quotes reveal a potential lack of awareness among some women regarding the influence and control exerted by men or spouses. This implies that male dominance, marianismo, and unequal gender power persist in a masculine culture, even when women feel appreciated and empowered by their spouses’ support. Women reject the notion of being subtly submissive to their husbands (Mohajan 2022; De Beauvoir 2023) and resist being seen as subjects of masculine desire (Honkatukia et al. 2022; Knoppers et al. 2022).

4.3. Role Constraints

Interviewees perceived that the nuances linked to role constraints within Stewart’s DCC model present intricate challenges that are elusive to a complete understanding. As entrepreneurs, they encountered hurdles when articulating how role constraints operate in their businesses due to the complex and dynamic nature of these constraints. The spectrum of role constraints encompasses various elements, including organizational structures, interpersonal dynamics, and societal expectations, forming a complex and interconnected web. Particularly for women entrepreneurs navigating Ireland’s fast-paced and demanding business landscape, there is a formidable challenge in understanding the intricate and far-reaching impact of these constraints on their roles and responsibilities.

These challenges arise from various factors, including family demands, entrenched sociocultural norms, limited professional experience, and the constantly changing nature of business environments. This range of influences intensifies the difficulties for entrepreneurs, contributing to their ongoing struggle to fully understand and navigate the complex web of role constraints within their operational realms.

Funding! [The] challenge for me is funding, trying to access either grants or investments and to, you know, move the business to the next stage of its development. So, I find that funding is difficult. Accessing that fund is difficult, and I haven’t. You know some people would... Well, there are statistics out saying that 30 percent [do get funded in Ireland.

(Interviewee 7)

It’s difficult [for me to have] autonomy. So, [I am] not sure. I’m not sure I’m not sure how to answer. That wouldn’t be an honest thing at the minute.

(Interviewee 8)

The viewpoint expressed by the interviewees aligns with existing research findings that have presented diverse outcomes regarding how women entrepreneurs manage the interplay of familial and business duties, as well as the challenges they face, which are increasingly significant due to the socioeconomic changes occurring in society. Considering that women own nearly half of all businesses globally (GEM 2021/2022), it is crucial to understand the factors that influence women entrepreneurs and their strategies for coping with these challenges. This understanding is particularly important for assisting women and policymakers in identifying targeted actions to alleviate the stressors and negative consequences highlighted in the literature and this study (Xheneti et al. 2021; Maseda et al. 2022). It is worth emphasizing, however, that the participants in this study did not feel an unwavering necessity to rigidly separate family matters from business affairs.

Well, we can actually choose to get stuck in that [choice between business and family], or we can realize that on one salary, [I am] feeding a family…

(Interviewee 2)

[Regarding motivations] It was also like the drive and the values. The values of being there together as a family unit, and all that. So it’s the drive, but it’s also the values, in my estimation.

(Interviewee 3)

We have a family business here, which I’m in the office of right now… …So I think my entrepreneurial spirit came from my family.

(Interviewee 5)

As previously discussed, Irish women entrepreneurs commonly view their businesses as integral to their life circumstances, acting as channels for self-actualization. They work toward configuring their enterprises to foster mutual reinforcement and synergy between their business and family roles. Recent research validates these observations, emphasizing the sustained importance of businesses in the lives of women entrepreneurs (Budiarto et al. 2023). Reflecting the sentiments expressed by interviewees, the primary challenges faced by female entrepreneurial leaders in Ireland revolve around a lack of shared meanings, insufficient resources, and rigid contextual frameworks. Recent studies delve into these challenges, shedding light on women entrepreneurs’ evolving constraints in Ireland, including the impact of shifting societal expectations and economic conditions (Stephens et al. 2022; Trauth and Connolly 2021).

4.4. Role Choices

Despite the significant increase in women-owned businesses in Ireland, women entrepreneurs face challenges and are often marginalized in entrepreneurship. A comprehensive analysis of interview data unveils the nuanced role choices undertaken by interviewees, illuminating the distinct difficulties and strategic considerations they encounter. The data indicates that existing government programs for women entrepreneurs are underutilized, attributed to a lack of awareness or perceived relevance, with female entrepreneurs frequently relying on their networks and communities for support. A critical issue identified is the insufficient availability of current information on the barriers they face during startup creation. Navigating diverse role options, these women strategically craft alternatives that may not always be apparent to external observers. The complexity of their decisions lies in delicately balancing role requirements, acknowledging limitations, and evaluating their perceived capacity for creativity and innovation to chart a viable course forward. In showcasing adaptability and prowess in entrepreneurial leadership, these interviewees discern, select, and embrace relevant pathways amid ambiguity and challenges, aligning with the existing literature (Stephens et al. 2022; Bannister and Evans 2023). The research findings also illustrate that their entrepreneurial leadership roles make choices within the parameters of demand and constraint, echoing the resonance with other researchers (Kimbu et al. 2021; Blanco-Gonzalez-Tejero and Cano-Marin 2023). Their exercise of choice entails endorsing specific options reflecting deliberate and strategic decision-making processes. As Irish women entrepreneurs, these interviewees demonstrate dynamism by employing a range of soft and hard skills, adapting to contextual factors, and effectively managing family, business, and stakeholder interests. This adaptability aligns with the nuanced nature of entrepreneurial leadership and is supported by the existing literature (Abrar ul Haq et al. 2021; Padilla-Meléndez et al. 2022; Hurtado Mercado 2023), contributing to the evolving narrative of women’s entrepreneurial leadership and emphasizing the multifaceted nature of their decision-making processes.

Oh, yeah, [when it comes to choices] I’d say time plays a big part, but I also have to align it with my overall goal. So, my goal is definitely to grow my company. I have my own company, and I would like shares of my dad’s business that I’m currently working in.

(Interviewee 13)

[When it comes to choices] It just comes down to the end goal and where you want to be.

(Interviewee 4)

[Regarding choices] I would say, yeah, the safety of employees and our employees’ well-being [is my priority].

(Interviewee 6)

[Making choices is complex because] I don’t have the finances behind me at the minute to do that. But so that’s okay. That is going to be something we’re gonna look at. But we’re doing it. We’re looking at a roadmap to get there.

(Interviewee 8)

We’d grown it over five years and sold it for, I’m sorry, I sold my share for a lot of money in it for a very short space of time. So, I was feeling like the queen bee, which was completely ridiculous.

(Interviewee 1)

Ultimately, in such a diverse business environment, Irish female entrepreneurs choose to exemplify models of effectual conduct, viewing it as a strategy to enhance the commitment of their followers. Furthermore, the interviewees emphasized the importance of promoting employee development and fostering collective learning as essential leadership competencies (Goncalves 2012). The findings of this investigation highlight that Irish women entrepreneurs regard knowledge transfer as a crucial developmental necessity, aligning with the existing literature (Malik et al. 2023; Yoon et al. 2023).

Sharing my knowledge, I suppose, even sharing with the younger [ones]. You know, women. You know, instilling that confidence that you can do it if you have the passion and you really want it.

(Interviewee 8)

I suppose, like knowledge is sometimes, it can sometimes [be] a constraint as well because I do need to do a lot of research for both and make sure to share it.

(Interviewee 4)

Several scholars in the field propose that Irish entrepreneurs can be viewed as proactive learners, framing the entrepreneurial process as a systematically structured learning trajectory (Goncalves 2015a; Gliga and Evers 2023; Shirish et al. 2023). This study advances this perspective by conceptualizing Irish women’s entrepreneurship as a collaborative developmental undertaking. They prioritize cooperation and coordinated learning as crucial elements in sustaining adaptability within their enterprises, which is a determining factor for their success. Their entrepreneurial efforts embody a collaborative approach focused on co-development, emphasizing the cultivation of positive relationships, role modeling, and shared learning. This interpretation aligns with academic discussions on the nuanced aspects of gender, interwoven with identity and diverse power dynamics (Chereau and Meschi 2022). Consequently, the findings underscore that relational qualities significantly enhance leadership behaviors within the entrepreneurial organizational context.

5. Research Discussion, Limitations, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Irish women entrepreneurs play a substantial role in shaping the country’s economic landscape by providing employment opportunities through the establishment and management of businesses. Based on insights from the interviews, this study reveals a nuanced array of motivations influencing women’s engagement in entrepreneurship in Ireland. These motivations exhibit contextual variations within the country’s unique economic landscape, aligning with the existing scholarly discourse that highlights women in advanced economies are often driven by pull factors, like self-actualization and autonomy (Lingappa and Rodrigues 2023). This study adopted Stewart’s DCC model to systematically examine how Irish women entrepreneurs perceive and negotiate the multifaceted demands, constraints, and choices inherent in their leadership roles. By comprehensively analyzing the motivations underlying their entrepreneurial pursuits, this study contributes to bridging a significant knowledge gap at the intersection of gender equality and disparities, leadership, and entrepreneurship within its specific socioeconomic context.

5.1. Discussion

Historically, the predominant narrative surrounding entrepreneurship has centered on male innovators, leaving women disproportionately represented among economically vulnerable businesses in Ireland. However, this simplistic portrayal of gender inequality fails to capture the diverse roles that Irish women play in entrepreneurship, which span a spectrum from high-growth enterprises to subsistence businesses. While evidence may seem to support such stereotypes, it is essential to recognize that this binary classification, akin to the division between necessity and opportunity entrepreneurship, is inherently flawed (O’Donnell et al. 2024). Although gender equality may be an issue, men and women in Ireland initiate businesses across both formal and informal sectors, engaging in various forms of entrepreneurship within different cultural contexts. Recent research also highlights that opportunity motivations are prevalent among entrepreneurs traditionally categorized as necessity driven (Lingappa and Rodrigues 2023). Perpetuating these stereotypes risks reinforcing gender inequality in Irish entrepreneurship by sustaining misleading assumptions. Despite progress, significant efforts are still required to support and empower women entrepreneurs in Ireland as they establish businesses that contribute to economic and social development for themselves, their families, and their communities. As scholars investigate the motivations behind Irish women entrepreneurs initiating and expanding businesses, policymakers, startup incubators, and program leaders can develop nuanced and practical solutions to address the barriers that women face in starting and growing businesses across diverse industry sectors in the country.

This study examined women’s entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial leadership in Ireland, emphasizing their importance in generating employment, fostering innovation, and boosting economic growth. It also analyzed various obstacles that Irish women entrepreneurs face, including limited access to education, training, and financial support. While the existing literature indicates that women entrepreneurs in Ireland are exceptionally self-confident and driven and are less afraid of failure than their peers in emerging economies, they are motivated by a desire for revenue, independence, personal growth, self-fulfillment, and development (Lindvert et al. 2023). Irish women entrepreneurs are primarily driven by pull factors, such as the desire for independence, self-achievement, and personal growth and development. Conversely, push factors, such as limited access to financing, market access, and a lack of social support, hinder their ability to establish and grow their businesses. The analysis of the findings underscores the significance of context-based relations in entrepreneurship strategy and acknowledges the role of gender in entrepreneurial leadership. Over the past five years, a strong emphasis has been placed in the literature on women’s entrepreneurship, concentrating on identifying their challenges and strategies to address them. Several researchers have highlighted the importance of providing women entrepreneurs with professional education, apprenticeship programs, and improved financial support to enable them to launch and develop their new ventures.

The findings of this study align well with Stewart’s DCC framework, offering a structured interpretation of how early-stage women entrepreneurs in urban Ireland navigate their entrepreneurial pathways. The “demand” dimension is reflected in participants’ strong intrinsic motivations—such as the pursuit of autonomy, creative fulfillment, and alignment with personal values—which drove their initial decision to pursue entrepreneurship. Simultaneously, the “constraints” identified in this study—ranging from limited access to financing and networks to ongoing gender bias and institutional gatekeeping—highlight the persistent barriers these women encounter, even within an advanced economy. Importantly, the “choices” these entrepreneurs make in response to such demands and constraints were not merely reactive but strategic, as seen in their reliance on personal networks, bootstrapping approaches, and alternative success metrics beyond financial growth. By applying the DCC framework, this study underscores the agency of women entrepreneurs while also situating their decisions within the broader sociocultural and institutional context of urban Ireland.

Furthermore, the existing literature has emphasized the need to address cultural and societal norms that restrict women’s ability to engage in entrepreneurship (McAdam 2022; Mupangwa 2023). Some scholars have criticized the focus on women’s entrepreneurship, asserting that such efforts merely reinforce the stereotype of women as inactive victims of poverty and that empowerment should not be limited to entrepreneurship (Ogundana et al. 2021; Apolevič 2023; Reshi and Sudha 2023; Sudha and Reshi 2023). Others contend that women’s entrepreneurship should not be seen as a solution to poverty, as it overlooks the systemic causes of poverty and inequality. Nonetheless, the findings of this study underscore the significance of women’s entrepreneurial leadership in Ireland in promoting economic development while highlighting their unique gender-based challenges.

5.2. Limitations and Further Research

The limitations inherent in this study primarily arise from the specific contextual attributes exhibited by the women entrepreneurs interviewed in Ireland, the small sample size, and the challenges associated with making inductive generalizations from qualitative data collected in the field. Despite these constraints, it is essential to emphasize that this methodological approach serves as a constructive response to identified research gaps in examining entrepreneurship within specific contexts. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that, similar to many analogous studies grounded in inductive, qualitative inquiry, the understanding of entrepreneurship as a gendered activity is limited, especially in Ireland, primarily due to the scarcity of relevant research evidence beyond the conventional male normative framework. Further research should address these limitations, focusing on accumulating additional evidence from Ireland and other similar economies to validate and elucidate the nuances (i.e., emic themes) and outcomes of this study. Furthermore, there exists an opportunity to formulate a comprehensive model featuring testable propositions that underscore the intricate interconnections between women’s entrepreneurial pursuits, the specific attributes of the entrepreneurial entities involved, and the macro-, meso-, and micro-dimensions of the social constructs that shape their entrepreneurial progress.

Additionally, it is essential to acknowledge access-related issues as inherent limitations in this study, given the reliance on purposive snowball sampling, which relies on the networks of interviewees in Ireland and an initial attempt to reach out to them via LinkedIn. Given the exploratory nature of this study and the complexity of capturing the lived experiences of women entrepreneurs in Ireland, the decision to focus on a purposive sample of 14 participants from the Greater Dublin Area is both practical and contextually grounded (Lim 2025). While the authors acknowledge that this limited sample size does not allow for generalization to the broader population of Irish women entrepreneurs, the qualitative richness of the interviews offers valuable insight into the structural, cultural, and institutional factors influencing entrepreneurial engagement. As such, this study serves as a foundational platform for future research, encouraging broader geographic sampling, comparative studies, and deeper inquiry into the diverse realities shaping women’s entrepreneurship in Ireland and beyond.

Nevertheless, it is essential to underscore gender equality issues, as well as disparities in values and attitudes that constitute an integral facet of research endeavors aimed at conceptualizing the leadership exhibited by Irish women in entrepreneurship. In this regard, the insights gleaned from this study contribute to the body of knowledge concerning Irish women entrepreneur leaders and catalyze the exploration of novel research avenues from the perspective of women, particularly regarding perceptions and experiences of leadership that are dynamically influenced by the intricate interplay of individual and contextual factors shaped by the gender of female entrepreneurs in Ireland.

5.3. Conclusions and Recommendations

The results reveal that the motivations of Irish women entrepreneurs diverge considerably from those documented in the extant literature on women entrepreneurs in similar economic environments.

Table 2. Summary of the findings.

Items Descriptors	Descriptors
Drivers	• Generating value for the business, its stakeholders, and society • Partnerships • Well-being, affluence, and contentment
Demands	• Outcomes for the business encompass both monetary and non-monetary aspects • Resilience, adaptability, and inclusion • Self-discovery and self-fulfillment
Constraints	• High workload • Inexperience and absence of established cognitive frameworks • Absence of common understanding • Marriage, offspring, familial responsibilities, and business obligations • Direct access to financial resources and programs (complex to understand/apply) • Conventional Irish norms for femininity, family roles, and societal expectations
Choice	• Mutual professional enhancement/advancement possibilities • Teamwork • Flexible and adaptive expectations and roles • Career progression or professional development

Source: compiled by the authors.

summarizes the key findings related to the DCC dimensions and opinions within the Irish context. The empirical evidence highlights the significance of the local business environment in understanding the context of Irish women’s entrepreneurial leadership. The results indicate that Irish women entrepreneurs perceive the primary role of leaders as focusing on generating value, enhancing well-being, and creating benefits for a broad range of stakeholders, including employees, local communities, and the organization. Furthermore, women’s skillful navigation of the dynamic and unpredictable Irish business landscape is crucial to ensuring the firm’s prosperity.

In the Irish women’s entrepreneurship landscape, the emphasis on generating outcomes that align with diverse stakeholder interests and societal well-being is integral to their leadership responsibilities. Financial and non-financial gains along with a focus on the sustainability of entrepreneurial results are pivotal considerations. This study’s outcomes highlight that Irish women entrepreneurs view effective leadership as a dual contribution to profitability and the overall welfare of their collaborative network, including immediate family and close collaborators. This network encompasses individuals with diverse backgrounds, entrepreneurial goals, and considerations of the broader context, business environment, and political landscape (Nate et al. 2022; Daradkeh 2023). Additionally, recent challenges and opportunities such as navigating evolving market trends, digital transformations, and the impact of global events further shape the dynamics of female entrepreneurial leadership (Khurana et al. 2022; Vuchkovski et al. 2023) in Ireland, providing avenues for ongoing research and extending the understanding of the DCC model in this specific context.

The following critical policy recommendations, many of which are supported by existing research, aim to advance women’s entrepreneurship in Ireland:

• Access to Funding and Resources—Facilitate increased access to financial resources and funding for women entrepreneurs, addressing existing gender inequality and disparities in venture capital and traditional financing while implementing and promoting targeted financial programs and incentives to support women-led businesses (Stephens et al. 2022; Henry et al. 2022; Johnston et al. 2023).
• Educational and Networking Initiatives—Develop and expand educational programs that focus on entrepreneurship skills and business management, specifically for women, while fostering networking opportunities and mentorship programs to connect aspiring and established women entrepreneurs with experienced professionals (Kelly and McAdam 2023; Nziku and Bikorimana 2023).
• Community Engagement and Awareness—Foster community engagement to build a supportive ecosystem for women entrepreneurs while promoting awareness of the significance of gender equality, diversity, and inclusiveness in entrepreneurship and emphasizing success stories to inspire others (Henry and Lewis 2023).
• Corporate Partnerships—Foster collaborations between women entrepreneurs and established businesses while promoting corporate partnerships that offer mentorship, procurement opportunities, and access to larger markets (Johnston et al. 2023; Korinek and van Lieshout 2023).
• Cultural and Mindset Shifts—Work towards shifting societal attitudes and stereotypes regarding women in leadership and entrepreneurship while promoting a cultural environment that celebrates and values the contributions of women entrepreneurs (Hamouda et al. 2022; Hurtado Mercado 2023).
• Policy Advocacy and Support—Advocate for policies that promote gender equality and eliminate barriers for women in entrepreneurship while implementing supportive policies, such as flexible working arrangements and family-friendly measures, to enable a better work-life balance for women entrepreneurs (Henry et al. 2022).
• Promoting Digital Literacy—Enhance digital literacy programs to empower women entrepreneurs to leverage technology for business growth while promoting awareness and training on digital marketing and e-commerce strategies (Faugoo and Onaga 2022).
• Research and Data Collection—Invest in initiatives focusing on understanding the specific challenges faced by women entrepreneurs in Ireland while regularly collecting and analyzing gender-disaggregated data to inform evidence-based policymaking.