Relationship of Work-Related Stress and Offline Social Leisure on Political Participation of Voters in the United States
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Background
2.1. Work-Related Stress and Political Participation
2.1.1. Neoliberalism and Its Working Conditions
2.1.2. Limitations of Current Psychological Models Predicting Political Participation
2.1.3. Psychological Theories Explaining the Impacts of Work-Related Stress on Political Participation
2.1.4. Work-Related Stress Appraisal of Two Types of Entrepreneurs
2.1.5. Concluding Remarks for the First Hypothesis
2.2. Offline Social Leisure and Political Participation
2.2.1. Leisure—Critical Theory
2.2.2. Empirical Evidence for the Lack of Social Leisure
2.2.3. The Entrepreneurial In-Groups and Their Impacts on Collective Identity
2.2.4. Participatory Efficacy as a Predictor for Collective Action
2.2.5. Concluding Remarks for the Second and Third Hypotheses
3. Current Study
4. Methods
4.1. Dataset and Sample
4.2. Measures
4.2.1. Work-Related Stress
4.2.2. Offline Social Leisure
4.2.3. Participatory Efficacy
4.2.4. Political Participation
4.2.5. Voting
4.3. Data Analysis Strategy
4.3.1. Principal Component Analysis
4.3.2. Structural Equation Modelling
4.4. Covariates
5. Results
5.1. Principal Component Analysis
5.2. Bivariate Correlations
5.3. The Main Analysis
5.3.1. Results for All Three Hypotheses
5.3.2. Exploratory Results
5.3.3. Post Hoc Analysis
6. Discussion
6.1. Work-Related Stress and Political Participation
6.2. Offline Social Leisure and Political Participation
6.3. Mediation Effect—Offline Social Leisure and Participatory Efficacy in Relation to Political Participation
6.4. The Explanatory Aims
6.5. Methodological Aim
6.6. Limitations
7. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Path | Unstandardised Regression Weight | Standardised Regression Weight | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | Bootstrapping Percentile 95% CI | β | SE | Bootstrapping Percentile 95% CI | |||||
Lower | Upper | p | Lower | Upper | p | |||||
Direct Effects | ||||||||||
WRS → PP | 0.30 | 0.19 | −0.44 | 0.67 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.17 | 0.09 |
WRS → VOT | −0.01 | 0.02 | −0.06 | 0.04 | 0.82 | −0.02 | 0.06 | −0.12 | 0.01 | 0.82 |
OSL → PP | 0.69 *** | 0.13 | 0.43 | 0.94 | <0.001 | 0.28 | 0.05 | 0.17 | 0.38 | <0.001 |
OSL → VOT | 0.03 | 0.02 | −0.01 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.06 | −0.02 | 0.22 | 0.09 |
OSL → PE | 0.18 *** | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.29 | <0.001 | 0.19 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.30 | <0.001 |
PE → PP | 0.65 *** | 0.13 | 0.39 | 0.90 | <0.001 | 0.26 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.35 | <0.001 |
PE → VOT | 0.06 *** | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.09 | <0.01 | 0.19 | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.31 | <0.01 |
SEI → PP | −0.03 ** | 0.01 | −0.05 | −0.01 | <0.01 | −0.18 | 0.06 | −0.28 | −0.01 | <0.01 |
SEI → VOT | −0.01 * | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 | −0.16 | 0.07 | −0.29 | -0.03 | 0.02 |
EDU → PP | −0.16 | 0.01 | −0.33 | −0.02 | 0.09 | −0.11 | 0.06 | −0.22 | 0.02 | 0.09 |
EDU → VOT | −0.03 * | 0.01 | −0.05 | 0.00 | 0.05 | −0.14 | 0.07 | −0.29 | -0.01 | 0.05 |
EDU → PE | −0.09 * | 0.04 | −0.15 | −0.02 | 0.02 | −0.15 | 0.06 | −0.25 | -0.03 | 0.02 |
Indirect Effects | ||||||||||
(OSL → PE) * (PE → PP) | 0.12 *** | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.21 | <0.001 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.09 | <0.001 |
(OSL → PE) * (PE → VOT) | 0.01 ** | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | <0.01 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.08 | <0.01 |
Total Effects | ||||||||||
(OSL → PE) * (PE → PP) + (OSL → PP) | 0.81 *** | 0.13 | 0.55 | 1.10 | <0.001 | 0.33 | 0.05 | 0.22 | 0.43 | <0.001 |
(OSL → PE) * (PE → VOT) + (OSL → VOT) | 0.04 * | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.14 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.25 | 0.02 |
Covariances | ||||||||||
WRS ⟷ OSL | 0.20 * | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.38 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.24 | 0.04 |
WRS ⟷ EDU | −0.22 | 0.16 | −0.49 | 0.06 | 0.11 | −0.08 | 0.05 | −0.18 | 0.22 | 0.12 |
WRS ⟷ SEI | −3.00 * | 1.39 | −5.60 | −0.67 | 0.01 | −0.13 | 0.05 | −0.24 | −0.03 | 0.02 |
OSL ⟷ EDU | −1.33 *** | 0.26 | −1.80 | −0.89 | <0.001 | 0.32 | 0.05 | −0.41 | −0.22 | <0.001 |
OSL ⟷ SEI | −8.86 *** | 2.20 | −12.88 | −4.96 | <0.001 | −0.24 | 0.05 | −0.35 | −0.14 | <0.001 |
SEI ⟷ EDU | 37.64 *** | 4.13 | 31.03 | 44.87 | <0.001 | 0.63 | 0.04 | 0.54 | 0.70 | <0.001 |
Appendix B
Variable | b | SE B | β | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | 14.23 [11.31, 17.25] | 1.51 | – | p < 0.001 |
Offline social leisure a | 0.74 [0.50, 0.98] | 0.12 | 0.31 | p < 0.001 |
Participatory efficacy | 0.70 [0.46, 0.94] | 0.12 | 0.28 | p < 0.001 |
Socioeconomic status | −0.03 [−0.05, −0.01] | 0.01 | −0.19 | p < 0.01 |
Education | −0.18 [−0.37, −0.10] | 0.09 | −0.12 | p < 0.05 |
Appendix C
Appendix C.1. Methods
Appendix C.1.1. Dataset and Sample
Appendix C.1.2. Measures
Appendix C.1.3. Covariates
Appendix C.2. Results
Appendix C.2.1. Principal Component Analysis
Variable | Rotated Component Coefficient | |
---|---|---|
Component 1 | Communalities | |
Political Participation Latent Variable | ||
Worn a campaign emblem | 0.667 | 0.445 |
Work in political group | 0.617 | 0.380 |
Signed a petition | 0.610 | 0.372 |
Took part in demonstration | 0.604 | 0.365 |
Contacted politician to express view | 0.578 | 0.334 |
Offline Social Leisure Latent Variable | ||
Social hobbies | 0.822 | 0.675 |
Social gatherings | 0.822 | 0.675 |
Appendix C.2.2. The Main Analysis
Variable | M | SD | SE | Skewness | Kurtosis |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Political participation (R) | 5.68 | 1.00 | 0.01 | 1.69 | 2.80 |
Voted in the last election (R) | 1.78 | 0.41 | 0.01 | −1.38 | −0.09 |
Offline social leisure | 7.51 | 2.04 | 0.01 | −0.39 | −0.22 |
Participatory efficacy | 4.05 | 2.87 | 0.02 | 0.17 | −1.01 |
Highest year of school completed | 13.11 | 3.64 | 0.02 | 0.06 | −0.15 |
Total household income percentile | 5.37 | 2.76 | 0.02 | 0.07 | −1.13 |
Appendix C.2.3. Post Hoc Analysis
Appendix D
Path | Unstandardised Regression Weight | Standardised Regression Weight | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | SE | Bootstrapping Percentile 95% CI | β | SE | Bootstrapping Percentile 95% CI | |||||
Lower | Upper | p | Lower | Upper | p | |||||
Direct Effects | ||||||||||
OSL → PP | 0.06 *** | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.06 | <0.001 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.13 | <0.001 |
OSL → VOT | 0.01 *** | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | <0.001 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.07 | <0.001 |
OSL → PE | 0.22 *** | 0.01 | 0.21 | 0.24 | <0.001 | 0.16 | 0.01 | 0.15 | 0.17 | <0.001 |
PE → PP | 0.10 *** | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.11 | <0.001 | 0.29 | 0.01 | 0.28 | 0.30 | <0.001 |
PE → VOT | 0.02 *** | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.02 | <0.001 | 0.15 | 0.01 | 0.14 | 0.16 | <0.001 |
SEI → VOT | 0.02 *** | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | <0.001 | 0.10 | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.11 | <0.001 |
SEI → PE | 0.13 *** | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | <0.001 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.14 | <0.001 |
EDU → PP | 0.33 *** | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.04 | <0.001 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.13 | <0.001 |
EDU → PE | 0.20 *** | 0.01 | 0.19 | 0.20 | <0.001 | 0.25 | 0.01 | 0.24 | 0.26 | <0.001 |
Indirect Effects | ||||||||||
(OSL → PE) * (PE → PP) | 0.02 *** | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.02 | <0.001 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.05 | <0.001 |
(OSL → PE) * (PE → VOT) | 0.01 *** | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | <0.001 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.03 | <0.001 |
Total Effects | ||||||||||
(OSL → PE) * (PE → PP) + (OSL → PP) | 0.08 *** | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.09 | <0.001 | 0.16 | 0.01 | 0.15 | 0.17 | <0.001 |
(OSL → PE) * (PE → VOT) + (OSL → VOT) | 0.02 *** | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | <0.001 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.07 | <0.001 |
Covariances | ||||||||||
PP ⟷ VOT | 0.03 *** | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.04 | <0.001 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.08 | <0.001 |
OSL ⟷ EDU | 0.93 *** | 0.05 | 0.85 | 1.03 | <0.001 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.14 | <0.001 |
OSL ⟷ SEI | 0.56 *** | 0.03 | 0.49 | 0.63 | <0.001 | 0.10 | 0.01 | 0.09 | 0.11 | <0.001 |
SEI ⟷ EDU | 3.63 *** | 0.06 | 3.51 | 3.76 | <0.001 | 0.36 | 0.01 | 0.35 | 0.37 | <0.001 |
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Variable | M | SD | SE | Skewness | Kurtosis |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Signed a petition | 2.09 | 0.97 | 0.06 | 0.46 | −0.80 |
Took part in the demonstration | 3.14 | 0.77 | 0.05 | −0.60 | −0.08 |
Attended political meeting or rally | 2.93 | 0.88 | 0.05 | −0.50 | −0.46 |
Contacted politician to express view | 2.72 | 1.07 | 0.06 | −0.37 | −1.10 |
Donated money or raised funds | 2.60 | 1.10 | 0.06 | −0.20 | −1.27 |
Contacted media to express view | 3.31 | 0.77 | 0.05 | −1.05 | 0.88 |
Voted in 2012 election | 1.29 | 0.46 | 0.03 | 0.92 | −1.16 |
Work-related stress | 2.94 | 1.02 | 0.06 | −0.02 | −0.22 |
Social hobbies | 2.80 | 1.17 | 0.07 | −0.49 | −0.26 |
Social evenings a | 3.14 | 0.91 | 0.05 | −0.06 | −0.61 |
Participatory efficacy (R) | 3.34 | 1.54 | 0.09 | 0.51 | −0.02 |
Highest year of school completed | 14.14 | 2.61 | 0.15 | 0.19 | −0.17 |
Respondent’s socioeconomic index | 48.34 | 23.00 | 1.34 | 0.25 | −1.18 |
Variable | Rotated Component Coefficient | |
---|---|---|
Component 1 | Communalities | |
Political Participation Latent Variable | ||
Attended political meeting or rally | 0.821 | 0.675 |
Contacted politician to express view | 0.787 | 0.619 |
Took part in demonstration | 0.715 | 0.511 |
Contacted media to express view | 0.703 | 0.494 |
Donated money or raised funds | 0.645 | 0.416 |
Signed a petition | 0.547 | 0.299 |
Offline Social Leisure Latent Variable | ||
Social hobbies | 0.764 | 0.584 |
Social evenings | 0.764 | 0.584 |
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Šubrt, O. Relationship of Work-Related Stress and Offline Social Leisure on Political Participation of Voters in the United States. Soc. Sci. 2022, 11, 206. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11050206
Šubrt O. Relationship of Work-Related Stress and Offline Social Leisure on Political Participation of Voters in the United States. Social Sciences. 2022; 11(5):206. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11050206
Chicago/Turabian StyleŠubrt, Oldřich. 2022. "Relationship of Work-Related Stress and Offline Social Leisure on Political Participation of Voters in the United States" Social Sciences 11, no. 5: 206. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11050206