A Mixed-Methods Approach to Identify Farmers’ Perception and Practices Regarding Antibiotic Use in Vietnam
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Site
2.2. Ethical Considerations
2.3. The Study Population
2.4. Data Collection
2.5. Data Modelling
3. Results
3.1. General Characteristics of Farms and Farmers
3.2. Local Training Events for Farmers
3.3. Farmers’ Perception of Antibiotic Use
3.4. The Practice of Using Antibiotics for Non-Treatment Purposes
3.5. Factors Related to Perception and Practices of Antibiotic Use
4. Discussion
Study Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Quick Survey (For Sample Recruitment)
| |||
| ○ Male | ○ Female | |
| |||
| □ Farm owner | □ Decision maker | □ Worker on farm |
| |||
| |||
| □ Having pond(s) | □ Nearby river | □ Others |
| |||
○ Chicken | (b) ……………… | ||
○ Pig | (b) Sow: ……… Finisher: ……………Piglet:……………… | ||
| |||
| |||
a. Chicken: …………………….. | b. Pig: ……………………. | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No | ||
| |||
○ Yes | ○ No |
Appendix B. Questionnaire
- How long has your household been in the business of animal farming?[__|__] year
- 2.
- What types of cattle or poultry do you currently farm?
No | Type of Cattle | Quantity | Scale | |
1 | [__|__||__||__|__] | ○ Family | ○ Business | |
2 | [__|__||__||__|__] | ○ Family | ○ Business | |
3 | [__|__||__||__|__] | ○ Family | ○ Business |
- 3.
- How many members are there in your household participating in animal farming activities? [__|__] person (s)
- 4.
- How far is it from the housing area to the animal farm? [__|__|__|__] m
- 5.
- What are the farming facilities?
Facilities | ||
1. Animal houses | ○ Yes | ○ No |
2. Fences | ○ Yes | ○ No |
3. Biogas cellar | ○ Yes | ○ No |
4. Storehouse containing feed, vet drugs and other farming tools… | ○ Yes | ○ No |
5. Farm diary | ○ Yes | ○ No |
6. Others | ○ Yes | ○ No |
- 6.
- From which source do you often get animal breeds?
- From other household farms in the locality
- From company/wholesalers
- From own farms
- Other places ______________________
- 7.
- Which factors influence farmers’ choice in buying breed?
Factors | Priority Level |
1. Low price | [__] |
2. Self-experience, that place sells good breeds (Close connection) | [__] |
3. Clear original source | [__] |
4. Breeds with vaccination certification | [__] |
5. Breeds with health certificate | [__] |
6. Good conformation of livestock | [__] |
7. Healthy countenance of livestock | [__] |
8. Others | [__] |
- 8.
- What are your expectations in animal farming? _______________________________
- 9.
- Which factors do you concern and influence your decision in animal farming?
a. Factor | b. Important Level | |
1. Production cost | [__] | [__] |
2. Farming hygiene | [__] | [__] |
3. Fate water and food source | [__] | [__] |
4. Animal weight | [__] | [__] |
5. Epidemic diseases | [__] | [__] |
6. Selling price of finishing animals | [__] | [__] |
7. Others | [__] | [__] |
- 10.
- How often do you tidy your farm? (1—every day, 2—several times per week, 3—several times per month, 4—rarely, 5—never)
Place/Equipment of Hygiene Practice | Level | ||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
a. Animal house | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
b. Farming tools | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
c. Water drainage system | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
d. Food storage | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
e. Water tank | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
- 11.
- What are the main sources of drinking water and running water for your farm? (Maximum 2 choices)
Sources of Water | Drinking Water | Running Water |
a. Deep well water | □ | □ |
b. Hollow well-water | □ | □ |
c. Rain-water | □ | □ |
d. River/lake/canal water | □ | □ |
e. Others | □ | □ |
- 12.
- How do you eliminate waste-water from animal farming?
- Waste-water goes out the garden
- Waste-water goes out biogas cellar
- Waste-water goes out canal without being processed.
- 13.
- Others: Do you often apply any of the following habits?
Farming Practices | ||
a. Wash hands with soap before and after interacting with livestock | ○ Yes | ○ No |
b. Change clothes when entering holding pens | ○ Yes | ○ No |
c. Change shoes when entering holding pens | ○ Yes | ○ No |
d. Have special place to isolate suspected or sick livestock | ○ Yes | ○ No |
e. Allow livestock go freely outside the holding pens | ○ Yes | ○ No |
f. Slaughter livestock at home (to obtain meat) | ○ Yes | ○ No |
g. Slaughter suspected sick livestock (to sell or to consume) | ○ Yes | ○ No |
h. Sell out suspected sick livestock | ○ Yes | ○ No |
i. Cremate/Bury diseased animals at home | ○ Yes | ○ No |
j. When livestock get sick, purchase treatment drugs based on self-experience | ○ Yes | ○ No |
k. Read carefully manuals before applying drugs for treatments of livestock | ○ Yes | ○ No |
l. Ask the pharmacist carefully before applying drugs for treatment of livestock | ○ Yes | ○ No |
m. Consult the veterinarians carefully before purchasing drugs for treatments | ○ Yes | ○ No |
n. Vaccinate livestock right on schedule | ○ Yes | ○ No |
o. Often stop using drugs (with antibiotics) immediately after noticing diseases in livestock | ○ Yes | ○ No |
- 14.
- When do you often use antibiotics for your animal? (MA)
- When animal gets disease
- When outbreak of diseases
- Seasonal change
- Use often for prevention
- To promote animals’ growth
- Others _____________________
- 15.
- When epidemic disease happens, what do you often do? (MA)
- Immediate vaccination
- Apply antibiotics to livestock
- Clean house and farm
- Isolate livestock
- Others ____________________
- 16.
- How long after applied antibiotics, are the livestock released? [__|__|__] days
- 17.
- Do you use meat from your animal husbandry?○ Yes (next to question 18)○ No (Next to question 20)
- 18.
- If yes, rate your frequency?○ Very often○ Often○ Occasionally
- 19.
- How do you feel when using meat from your animal husbandry? (MA)
- Feel safer (hygiene issue)
- Fell higher quality
- Having more economic benefits
- Others _______________________________
- 20.
- If you do not frequently consume such meat, what are the reasons? (MA)
- Be afraid that your livestock’s meat was infected by diseases
- Be afraid that your livestock’s meat has antibiotics
- Be afraid that your livestock’s meat was unclear due to slaughter process
- Other _______________________________
- 21.
- Where do you find help or advice if facing any difficult situations in animal farming during the past two years?
a. Individuals, Organizations, Unions | b. Within 2 Years | |
1.Choose | 2.Time (s) | |
a. Local veterinarians | □ | |
b. Hamlet Farmers Association | □ | |
c. Veterinary medicine store | □ | |
d. Livestock feed store | □ | |
e. Neighbors or friends with animal farming experience | □ | |
f. Self-study, research via magazines, books, Internet | □ | |
g. Other individuals/organization _______________________ | □ |
- 22.
- Last year, how many times did you participate in training events related to livestock farming? [__] times/year
- 23.
- If yes, who did organize such training courses? (a)? Content (b)(a)__________________________________________________________________(b)__________________________________________________________________
- 24.
- Your level of agreement to the following evaluations: (1. Strongly agree; 2. Agree; 3. Both agree and disagree; 4. Disagree; 5. Strongly disagree; 99. No idea/Difficult to answer)
Evaluations | Level of Agreement | |||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 99 | |
a. In animal farming, the use of antibiotics is very necessary | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
b. The antibiotics I am using do not possess any harm to consumers | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
c. I have low risk in contracting zoonotic diseases | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
d. It is difficult to change the current animal farming practices | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
- A.
- Safe animal husbandry
- 25.
- In your opinion, what is safe animal farming? ____________________________
- 26.
- In your opinion, what is the purpose of safe animal farming? (1—totally unimportant; 5—totally important)
Level of Importance | |||||
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
a. To improve profit due to higher productivity | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
b. To prevent disease outbreaks | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
c. To improve quality and safety of products | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
d. To improve animal welfare | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
e. To satisfy consumers | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
f. To fulfill demands of ensuring consumers’ health | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
g. To protect farmers’ health | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
h. To avoid penalties | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
i. To fulfill conditions of being licensed for farming practices | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
g. Others | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
- B.
- AMU
- 27.
- In your opinions, what are antibiotics? _______________________________________
- 28.
- In your opinion, what are the effects of antibiotic usage? _________________________
- 29.
- In your opinions, what effects does the overuse of antibiotics in animal farming bring to livestock, farmers and the health of consumers? (1. Completely no effects; 2. Little, uncountable effects; 3. Great effects; 99. No idea/Difficult to answer)—(Put code of choice in column 1)
Target | 1. Level of Effects | 2. State of Effects |
a. Pigs/Chickens | [___] | ____________________________________________________________ |
b. Farmers involved in animal husbandry | [___] | ____________________________________________________________ |
c. Consumers of animal farming products | [___] | ____________________________________________________________ |
- 30.
- Do you have any idea about the problems of antibiotic-resistance?○ Completely have no idea (to question 33)○ Have heard of but have no understanding (to question 33)○ Little understanding (to question 31)○ Clear understanding of the problems of antibiotic-resistance (to question 31)○ Others ___________________________________________________
- 31.
- If you do, in your opinion, what is antibiotic-resistance? ______________________
- 32.
- Reasons for antibiotic resistance?
- Wrong dose in applying antibiotics (higher or lower)
- Wrong use in applying antibiotics
- Prolong/Short-time use of antibiotics
- Others (please specify):
- No idea/Difficult to answer
- 33.
- Have you ever heard about any solutions for reducing antibiotic uses?○ Have heard and understand (to question 34)○ Have heard but not understand much (to question 40)○ Never (to question 40)
- 34.
- If you have heard about any solutions, what are they? what are their purposes?(a)_________________________________________________________________(b)_________________________________________________________________
- 35.
- Have you ever thought that you would adopt the solutions for reducing antibiotics?○ Yes (to question 47) ○ Never (to question 48)
- 36.
- In this list, which are the solutions for reducing using antibiotic?
Contents | |||
Supplement organic acids into foods | ○ Correct | ○ Incorrect | ○ Do not know |
a. Supplement enzymes | ○ Correct | ○ Incorrect | ○ Do not know |
b. Supplement probiotics and prebiotics | ○ Correct | ○ Incorrect | ○ Do not know |
c. Supplement foods rich in minerals content | ○ Correct | ○ Incorrect | ○ Do not know |
d. Use herbal antibiotics | ○ Correct | ○ Incorrect | ○ Do not know |
- 37.
- Do you have experienced about using alternatives to antibiotics?○ Yes○ Never
- 38.
- If already experienced, can you please share the effectives of applying such measures to reduce using antibiotic? (MA)
- Reduce production cost
- Healthy animals, better growth
- Selling animals at a better price
- Effect but insignificant
- Totally ineffective
- Do not know how are the effects of such measures
- Others
- 39.
- Are you willing to use alternatives to antibiotics use in animal farming?○ Very willing○ Reluctant over the high price of alternative measures○ Not sure how to apply alternative measures○ Not sure about the effectiveness of alternative measures○ Reluctant over the effects to farming productivity○ Others
- 40.
- How do you get information about safe farming? (MA)
- Self-experiments and applications
- From newspaper, television (Public media)
- From animal farming training sessions
- From local media (leaflets, posters)
- From exchanging information with friends, neighbors
- Others
- A.
- Safe animal husbandry
- 41.
- How do you evaluate the level of safety at your household farm?
○ Very safe ○ Unsafe ○ Safe ○ Very unsafe ○ Quite safe - 42.
- Reasons for such evaluations? ______________________________
- 43.
- Please share the current productivity level in animal husbandry?
○ Very productive ○ Not productive ○ Productive ○ Completely not productive ○ Quite productive - 44.
- Reasons for such evaluations?
- 45.
- Do you feel assured using products of animal farming in your local area?
○ Very assured ○ Unsured ○ Assured ○ Completely insured ○ Quite assured ○ Not idea/difficult to answer
- B.
- AMU
- 46.
- In your opinions, how is the current need for using antibiotics in animal farming?
○ Very necessary ○ Necessary ○ Not necessary ○ Completely not necessary ○ No idea/Difficult to answer
- 47.
- Reasons for such evaluations? ___________________________________________
- 48.
- In your opinions, how popular is the use of antibiotics for animal farming?
○ Very unpopular ○ Not popular ○ Popular ○ Very popular ○ No idea/Difficult to answer - 49.
- Reasons for such evaluations?
- 50.
- What are the obstacles for taking measures in safe farming? (1—Totally not important; 5—very important)
Obstacles | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
1. Too expensive | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
2. Too much administration | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
3. Too much work | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
4. Do not believe that this would be beneficial | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
5. Do not believe that it would help to prevent animal diseases | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
6. Not confident as refusing to use antimicrobial for animal | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
7. I’ m not willing to | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
8. It is unnecessary to apply safe farming due to too small size of farming | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
9. Not mandatory | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
10. Others | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
- 51.
- To what extent these individuals, organizations, and unions in supporting better animal farming for farmers? (1. Very necessary; 2. Necessary; 3. May be unsure about necessary; 4. Unnecessary; 5. Very unnecessary)
Individuals, Organizations, Unions | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
1. Local veterinarians | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
2. Hamlet Farmers Association | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
3. Veterinary medicine store | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
4. Livestock feed store | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
5. Neighbours or friends with animal farming experience | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
6. Other individuals/organizations: | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
- 52.
- For a safe and productive animal farming, what kind of supports do the farmers need? (MA)
- Guides for places to get good breeds
- Guides for safe animal farming procedure
- Guides for information to obtain feeds for livestock with good quality
- Timely instructions for medicine usage in livestock prevention and
- treatments of diseases
- In time information provided and updates on cattle and poultry
- disease outbreaks
- Guides for antibiotic alternatives usage
- Information regarding harmful effects of antibiotic overuse
- Other
- 53.
- Please grade your satisfaction level with local veterinarians
Abilities and Qualification | Grade |
1. Technical knowledge | /10 |
2. Abilities to convey knowledge to the people | /10 |
3. Abilities to convey production techniques to the people | /10 |
- 54.
- Frequency that local or regional veterinarian inspectors come to your household to inspect and evaluate the activities of animal farming? … Times/year
- 55.
- If there is a training course of safe animal farming, do you willing to participate?○ Yes○ No○ Do not know
- 56.
- If yes, how many days for such training course? …………………. Day(s)
- 57.
- What contents do you expect to learn from such a training course?
- 58.
- Which suitable months to organize such training course?
- 59.
- Gender:○ Male○ Female
- 60.
- Year of birth: [__|__|__|__]
- 61.
- Ethnicity:○ Kinh○ Hoa○ Khmer○ Others _____________
- 62.
- Education (Please specify)○ Not know how to read and write/know how to read and write○ Primary school○ Secondary school○ High school○ Post-secondary education (higher education)○ Tertiary education (College or University)○ Graduated degree
- 63.
- Who is responsible for the livestock? (take care of, feed, monitor diseases,….) (record in relation to the respondents)○ Respondent○ Respondent’s husband/wife○ Respondent’s children○ Other (Please specify): __________________________________________________
- 64.
- How many years in accumulated experiences does the person responsible for livestock in the household have? [__|__] years
- 65.
- How many years in accumulated experiences does the interviewee have for livestock in the household? [__|__] years
Appendix C. COREQ Checklist
No. | Questions | Farmers’ Perception of Antibiotics and Uses | ||
Favourable | Moderate | Unfavourable | ||
1. | 27. In your opinions, what are antibiotics? | “Antibiotics are medications for treating bacterial infections.” “ABs are drugs to treat infectious diseases caused by bacteria.” | “Antibiotics are medications for treating infections.” “Antibiotics are substances for treatment and prevention of animal diseases.” | “Antibiotics are health benefit supplements or vaccines for preventing animal diseases.” Or Particpants provided no answers |
2. | 28. In your opinion, what are the effects of antibiotic usage | To treat sick animals | To treat sick animals To prevent animal diseases | To promote animals’ growth |
3 | 14. When do you often use antibiotics for your animal? (MA) | For theraputic purposes | For non-theraputic purposes | |
Treatment | Prevention | Growth promotion | ||
a. When animal gets disease | x | |||
b. When outbreak of diseases | x | |||
c. Seasonal change | x | |||
d. Use often for prevention | x | |||
e. To promote animals’ growth | x |
Appendix D. Results from Univariate and Multivariate Analysis
Unfavourable Perception of ABU | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Item | Univariate Analysis | Multi-Variate Analysis | |||||
No. Part | OR | 95% CI | p Value | OR | 95% CI | p Value | |
1. Gender | |||||||
Female | 18/35 | 2.56 | 1.09–6.0 | 0.03 | 2.3 | 0.82–6.32 | 0.1 |
Male | 19/65 | Ref | Ref | ||||
2. Age | |||||||
>40 | 25/71 | 0.7 | 0.32–1.9 | 0.65 | |||
≤40 | 12/29 | Ref | |||||
3. Education | |||||||
Primary | 13/23 | 2.8 | 1.10–7.4 | 0.04 | 2.96 | 1.02–8.50 | 0.04 |
Secondary& above | 24/77 | Ref | Ref | ||||
4. Year of experience | |||||||
3–6 years | 12/31 | 1.1 | 0.45–2.7 | 0.8 | |||
≥7 years | 25/69 | Ref | |||||
5. Farming scale | |||||||
Small size | 28/63 | 2.48 | 1.01–6.1 | 0.05 | 1.3 | 0.48–3.84 | 0.6 |
Medium size | 9/37 | Ref | Ref | ||||
6. Training participation | |||||||
n < 2 | 18/35 | 2.56 | 1.09–6.0 | 0.03 | 2.91 | 1.08–7.82 | 0.03 |
n ≥ 2 | 19/65 | Ref | Ref | ||||
7. Assessing antibiotic need | |||||||
Not very necessary | 28/69 | 2.27 | 0.81–6.4 | 0.1 | 1.80 | 0.58–5.62 | 0.3 |
Very necessary | 6/26 | Ref | Ref | ||||
8. Intention of reducing ABU | |||||||
No | 26/69 | 1.1 | 0.45–2.7 | 1 | 0.68 | 0.23–1.97 | 0.5 |
Yes | 11/31 | Ref | Ref | ||||
9. ABU practices | |||||||
For non-therapeutic purposes | 24/57 | 2.1 | 086–5.1 | 0.1 | 2.93 | 1.07–8.02 | 0.04 |
For only therapeutic purposes | 10/39 | Ref | Ref |
The Practices of ABU for Non-Treatment Purposes | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Item | Univariate Analysis | Multi-Variate Analysis | |||||
No. Part | OR | 95% CI | p Value | OR | 95% CI | p Value | |
1. Gender | |||||||
Female | 19/32 | 1 | 0.42–2.37 | 1 | 0.7 | 0.27–2.02 | 0.5 |
Male | 38/64 | Ref | Ref | ||||
2. Age | |||||||
>40 | 38/68 | 0.6 | 0.23–1.51 | 0.3 | |||
≤40 | 19/28 | Ref | |||||
3. Education | |||||||
Primary | 13/22 | 0.9 | 0.37–2.59 | 1 | 0.9 | 0.29–2.83 | 0.8 |
Secondary& above | 44/74 | Ref | Ref | ||||
4. Year of experience | |||||||
3–6 years | 20/29 | 1.8 | 0.70–4.50 | 0.2 | |||
≥7 years | 37/67 | Ref | |||||
5. Farming scale | |||||||
Small size | 39/59 | 2.05 | 0.88–4.76 | 0.1 | 2.5 | 0.92–6.49 | 0.07 |
Medium size | 18/37 | Ref | Ref | ||||
6. Training participation | |||||||
n < 2 | 16/33 | Ref | Ref | ||||
n ≥ 2 | 41/63 | 1.9 | 0.79–5.01 | 0.1 | 2.4 | 1.4–11.2 | 0.01 |
7. Assessing antibiotic need | |||||||
Not very necessary | 17/26 | 0.7 | 0.21–1.81 | 0.5 | 0.62 | 0.21–1.87 | 0.33 |
Very necessary | 39/69 | Ref | Ref | ||||
8. Intention of reducing ABU | |||||||
No | 44/65 | 2.9 | 1.21–7.03 | 0.03 | 3.39 | 1.29–8.91 | 0.01 |
Yes | 13/31 | Ref | Ref | ||||
9. ABU perception | |||||||
Unfavourable | 24/34 | 2.1 | 0.86–5.13 | 0.1 | 2.73 | 0.99–7.45 | 0.05 |
Moderate to favourable | 33/62 | Ref | Ref |
References
- Alarcon, Pablo, Barbara Wielanda, Ana L. P. Mateus, and Chris Dewberry. 2014. Pig farmers’ perceptions, attitudes, influences and management of information in the decision-making process for disease control. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 116: 223–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Anh, Nguyen Thi Huong, Dang Van Chinh, and Tran Thi Tuyet Hanh. 2020. Antibiotic Residues in Chickens and Farmers’ Knowledge of Their Use in Tay Ninh Province, Vietnam, in 2017. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health 32: 126–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Austin, Zubin, and Jane Sutton. 2014. Qualitative research: Getting started. The Canadian Journal of Hospital Pharmacy 67: 436–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Babbie, Earl R. 2020. The Practice of Social Research. Boston: Cengage Learning, pp. 88–123. [Google Scholar]
- Boeckel, Thomas P., Emma E. Glennon, Dora Chen, Marius Gilbert, Timothy P. Robinson, Bryan T. Grenfell, Simon A. Levin, and Sebastian Bonhoeffer. 2017. Reducing antimicrobial use in food animals. Science 357: 1350–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Carrique-Mas, Juan J., Nguyen V. Trung, Ngo T. Hoa, Ho Huynh Mai, Tuyen H. Thanh, James I. Campbell, Jaap A. Wagenaar, Anita Hardon, Thai Quoc Hieu, and Constance Schultsz. 2015. Antimicrobial Usage in Chicken Production in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. Zoonoses and Public Health 62: 70–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chi, Tran Thi Kim, Jesper H.Clausen, Phan Thi Van, Britt Tersbøl, and Anders Dalsgaard. 2017. Use practices of antimicrobials and other compounds by shrimp and fish farmers in Northern Vietnam. Aquaculture Reports 7: 40–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eltayb, Amani, S. Barakat, Gaetano Marrone, Sania Shaddad, and Cecilia Stålsby Lundborg. 2012. Antibiotic Use and Resistance in Animal Farming: A Quantitative and Qualitative Study on Knowledge and Practices among Farmers in Khartoum, Sudan. Zoonoses and Public Health 59: 330–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- FAO. 2011. Antibiotics in Farm Animal Production—Public Health and Animal Welfare. Available online: https://www.ciwf.org.uk/media/3758863/Antibiotics-in-Animal-Farming-Public-Health-and-Animal-Welfare.pdf (accessed on 24 August 2019).
- FAO. 2016a. Drivers, Dynamics and Epidemiology of Antimicrobial Resistance in Animal Production. Available online: https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/d5f6d40d-ef08-4fcc-866b-5e5a92a12dbf/ (accessed on 24 August 2019).
- FAO. 2016b. The FAO Action Plan on Antimicriobial Resistance 2016–2020. Available online: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5996e.pdf (accessed on 24 August 2019).
- Friedman, Daniela B., C. P. Kanwat, M. L. Headrick, N. J. Patterson, J. C. Neely, and Lillian U. Smith. 2007. Importance of prudent anti-biotic use on dairy farms in South Carolina: A pilot project on farmers’ knowledge, attitudes and practices. Zoonoses Public Health 54: 366–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- GSO. 2016. Results of the Rural, Agricultural and Fishery Cencus 2016. Available online: http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=778 (accessed on 30 November 2019).
- GSO. 2019a. Statistical Year Book of Vietnam. Available online: https://www.gso.gov.vn/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Nien-giam-thong-ke-day-du-2019.pdf (accessed on 12 December 2020).
- GSO. 2019b. Tien Giang Statistical Yearbook 2019. Available online: http://thongketiengiang.gov.vn/ (accessed on 3 March 2020).
- Kahn, Laura H. 2016. One Health and the Politics of Antimicrobial Resistance. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, pp. 10–16. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, Dang Pham, Claude Saegerman, Caroline Douny, Ton Vu Dinh, Bo Ha Xuan, Binh Dang Vu, Ngan Pham Hong, and Marie-Louise Scippo. 2013. First Survey on the Use of Antibiotics in Pig and Poultry Production in the Red River Delta Region of Vietnam. Food and Public Health 3: 247–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, Jae H., and In Choi. 2019. Choosing the Level of Significance: A Decision-theoretic Approach. Abacus 57: 27–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Landers, Timothy F., Bevin Cohen, Thomas E. Wittum, and Elaine L. Larson. 2012. A Review of Antibiotic Use in Food Animals: Perspective, Policy, and Potential. Public Health Reports 127: 4–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- MARD. 2017. Decision on promomulgating “The National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Use Management and Antimicrobial Resistance Prevention in Animal Husbandry and Aquaculture in the 2017–2020 Period”. Available online: https://vanbanphapluat.co/decision-2625-qd-bnn-ty-2017-national-action-plan-on-antimicrobial-use-management (accessed on 15 August 2021).
- MARD. 2020. Circular on Providing for Management of Veterinary Drugs Containing Narcotic Substances and Precursors. Veterinary Prescribing; Amendments to Circular no.18/2018/TT-BNNPTNT. Available online: https://thuvienphapluat.vn/van-ban/Linh-vuc-khac/Circular-12-2020-TT-BNNPTNT-management-of-veterinary-drugs-containing-narcotic-substances-and-precursors-459279.aspx?v=d (accessed on 15 August 2021).
- Marshall, Bonnie M., and Stuart B. Levy. 2011. Food animals and antimicrobials: Impacts on human health. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 24: 718–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Martin, Michael J., Sapna E. Thottathil, and Thomas B. Newman. 2015. Antibiotics Overuse in Animal Agriculture: A Call to Action for Health Care Providers. American Journal of Public Health 105: 2409–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marvin, Dawn M., Catherine E. Dewey, Andrijana Rajić, Zvonimir Poljak, and Beth Young. 2010. Knowledge of Zoonoses Among Those Affiliated with the Ontario Swine Industry: A Questionnaire Administered to Selected Producers, Allied Personnel, and Veterinarians. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease 7: 159–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McDonald, Susan M. 2012. Perception: A concept analysis. International Journal of Nursing Knowledge 23: 2–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McEwen, Scott A., and Paula J. Fedorka-Cray. 2002. Antimicrobial use and resistance in animals. Clinical Infectious Diseases 34: S93–S106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Nichter, Mark. 1994. Illness semantics and international health: The weak lungs/TB complex in the Philippines. Social Science & Medicine 38: 649–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Neill, Jim. 2014. Review on Antimicrobial Resistance: Tackling a Crisis for the Health and Wealth of Nations. Available online: https://wellcomecollection.org/works/rdpck35v (accessed on 5 January 2017).
- OIE. 2015. OIE Standards, Guidelines and Resolution on Antimicrobial Resistance and the Use of Antimicrobial Agents. Available online: https://web.oie.int/delegateweb/eng/ebook/AF-book-AMR-ANG_FULL.pdf?WAHISPHPSESSID=03152ead00d06990fa9066b7b71fcabc (accessed on 5 January 2017).
- OIE. 2016. The OIE Strategy on Antimicrobial Resistance and the Prudent Use of Antimicrobials. Available online: http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Media_Center/docs/pdf/PortailAMR/EN_OIE-AMRstrategy.pdf (accessed on 5 January 2017).
- Pham, Thi Thanh Hoai, Javier Revilla Diez, and Matthias Garschagen. 2021. A typology of household livelihood changes in rural coastal areas of the Vietnamese Mekong Delta—Capturing the heterogeneity and complexity of the social-ecological context. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 42: 241–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pham-Duc, Phuc, Meghan A. Cook, Hanh Cong-Hong, Hang Nguyen-Thuy, Pawin Padungtod, Hien Nguyen-Thi, and Sinh Dang-Xuan. 2019. Knowledge, attitudes and practices of livestock and aquaculture producers regarding antimicrobial use and resistance in Vietnam. PLoS ONE 14: e0223115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sadiq, Mohammed Babatunde, Sharifah Salmah Syed-Hussain, Siti Zubaidah Ramanoon, A. A. Saharee, N. I. Ahmad, Noraziah Mohd Zin, S. F. Khalid, D. S. Naseeha, Syahirah Ahmad Affandi, and Rozaihan Mansor. 2018. Knowledge, attitude and perception regarding antimicrobial resistance and usage among ruminant farmers in Selangor, Malaysia. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 156: 76–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saffer, Henry, and Frank J. Chaloupka. 1999. Tobacco Advertising: Economic Theory and International Evidence (0898-2937). Available online: https://www.nber.org/papers/w6958 (accessed on 3 March 2020).
- Slovin, E. 1960. Slovin’s Formula for Sampling Technique. Available online: https://prudencexd.weebly.com/ (accessed on 3 March 2020).
- Speksnijder, David C., and Jaap A. Wagenaar. 2018. Reducing antimicrobial use in farm animals: How to support behavioral change of veterinarians and farmers. Animal Frontiers 8: 4–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Tra, Vu Thi Thu, Pham Hong Ngan, Duong Van Nhiem, Ngo Minh Ha, and F. Unger. 2015. Biosecurity practices in small-scale pig farms in Hung Yen and Nghe An, Vietnam. Presented at Tropentag 2015, Berlin, Germany, September 16–18. [Google Scholar]
- Tuan, Nguyen Do Anh. 2010. Vietnam’s Agrarian Reform, Rural Livelihood and Policy Issues. Economics. Available online: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Vietnam-%E2%80%99-s-Agrarian-Reform-%2C-Rural-Livelihood-and-Tuan/5d13775099f3a3a5351e73da41317f481651fe6d (accessed on 3 March 2020).
- Visschers, Vivianne H. M., Annette Backhans, Lucie Collineau, Denise M. Iten, S. Loesken, Merel Postma, Catherine Belloc, Jo P. Dewulf, Ulf Emanuelson, Elisabeth Grosse Beilage, and et al. 2015. Perceptions of an-timicrobial usage, antimicrobial resistance and policy measures to reduce antimicrobial usage in convenient samples of Belgian, French, German, Swedish and Swiss pig farmers. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 119: 10–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wasserstein, Ronald L., and Nicole A. Lazar. 2016. The ASA statement on p-values: Context, process, and purpose. The American Statistician 70: 129–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- WHO. 2015. Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance. Available online: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/193736/1/9789241509763_eng.pdf?ua=1 (accessed on 5 January 2017).
- WHO. 2018. Antibiotic Resistance—Key Facts. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antibiotic-resistance (accessed on 3 March 2020).
- Willis, Laurie Denyer, and Clare Chandler. 2019. Quick fix for care, productivity, hygiene and inequality: Reframing the entrenched problem of antibiotic overuse. BMJ Global Health 4: e001590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Types of Farms | |||
---|---|---|---|
Total (n = 100) | Chicken (n = 53) | Pig (n = 47) | |
1. Gender | |||
Female | 35 | 14 (26.4%) | 21 (44.7%) |
Male | 65 | 39 (73.6%) | 26 (55.3%) |
2. Age (median, (IQR)) | 49 (39, 55) | 47 (36, 54) | 49 (40, 56) |
≤40 | 29 | 17 (32.1%) | 12 (25.5%) |
>40 | 71 | 36 (67.9%) | 35 (74.5%) |
3. Education | |||
Secondary & above | 77 | 43 (81.1%) | 34 (72.3%) |
Primary | 23 | 10 (18.9%) | 13 (27.7%) |
4. Years of farming experience (median, IQR) | 10 (5, 15) | 7 (5, 13) | 12 (9, 20) |
3–6 years | 31 | 25 (47.2%) | 6 (12.8%) |
≥7 years | 69 | 28 (52.8%) | 41 (87.2%) |
5. Training participation in past 12 months | 2 (1, 5) | 3 (0, 4) | 2 (1, 5) |
n ≥ 2 | 65 | 36 (67.9%) | 29 (67.1%) |
n < 2 | 35 | 17 (32.1%) | 18 (38.3%) |
6. Farming scale | |||
Household size | 19 | 12 (22.6%) | 7 (14.9%) |
Small size | 44 | 26 (49.1%) | 18 (38.3%) |
Medium size | 37 | 15 (28.3%) | 22 (46.8%) |
7. Assessing antibiotic need | |||
Not very necessary | 69 | 33 (62.3%) | 36 (76.6%) |
Very necessary | 26 | 18 (34%) | 8 (17%) |
No idea | 5 | 2 (3.8%) | 3 (6.4%) |
8. ABU perception | |||
Favourable | 13 | 6 (11.3%) | 7 (14.9%) |
Moderate | 50 | 28 (52.8%) | 22 (46.8%) |
Unfavourable | 37 | 19 (35.9%) | 18 (38.3%) |
9/ ABU practices | |||
Only used for therapeutic purposes | 39 | 18 (33.9%) | 21 (44.7%) |
Used for non-therapeutic purposes | 57 | 33 (62.3%) | 24 (51.0%) |
Not identified | 4 | 2 (3.8 %) | 2 (4.3%) |
10. Intention to reduce ABU | |||
Yes | 31 | 17 (32.1%) | 14 (29.8%) |
No | 69 | 36 (67.9%) | 33 (70.2%) |
Farmers’ Perception of ABU | Sig. | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Total (n = 100) | Unfavourable | Moderate to Favourable | ||
1. Gender | ||||
Female | 35 | 18 (51.4%) | 17 (48.6%) | 0.028 |
Male | 65 | 19 (29.2%) | 46 (70.8%) | |
2. Age | ||||
≤40 | 29 | 12 (41.4%) | 17 (58.6%) | 0.562 |
>40 | 71 | 25 (35.2%) | 46 (64.8%) | |
3. Education | ||||
Secondary& above | 77 | 24 (311.2%) | 53 (68.8%) | 0.027 |
Primary | 23 | 13 (56.5%) | 10 (43.5%) | |
4. Year of experience | ||||
3–6 years | 31 | 12 (38.7%) | 19 (61.3%) | 0.812 |
≥7 years | 69 | 25 (36.2%) | 44 (63.8%) | |
5. Farming scale | ||||
Household size | 19 | 11 (57.9%) | 8 (42.1%) | 0.05 |
Small size | 44 | 17 (38.6%) | 27 (61.4%) | |
Medium size | 37 | 9 (24.3%) | 28 (75.7%) | |
6. Training participation | ||||
n ≥ 2 | 65 | 19 (29.2%) | 46 (70.8%) | 0.028 |
n < 2 | 35 | 18 (51.4%) | 17 (48.6%) | |
7. Assessing antibiotic need | ||||
Not very necessary | 69 | 28 (40.6%) | 41 (59.4%) | 0.159 |
Very necessary | 26 | 6 (23.1%) | 20 (76.9%) | |
No idea | 05 | 3 (60%) | 2 (40%) | |
8. Intention to reduce ABU | ||||
No | 69 | 26 (37.7%) | 43 (62.3%) | 0.833 |
Yes | 31 | 11 (35.5%) | 20 (64.5%) | |
9. ABU practices | ||||
Only using for theraputic purposes | 26 | 5 (19.2%) | 21 (80.8%) | 0.037 |
Using for non-therapeutic purposes | 70 | 29 (41.4%) | 41 (58.6%) | |
Not identified | 4 | 3 (75%) | 1 (25%) |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Thu, T.T.A.; Chambers, M.; Trung, N.V.; Parker, M.; Hoa, N.T. A Mixed-Methods Approach to Identify Farmers’ Perception and Practices Regarding Antibiotic Use in Vietnam. Soc. Sci. 2022, 11, 531. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11110531
Thu TTA, Chambers M, Trung NV, Parker M, Hoa NT. A Mixed-Methods Approach to Identify Farmers’ Perception and Practices Regarding Antibiotic Use in Vietnam. Social Sciences. 2022; 11(11):531. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11110531
Chicago/Turabian StyleThu, Tran Thi Anh, Mary Chambers, Nguyen Vinh Trung, Michael Parker, and Ngo Thi Hoa. 2022. "A Mixed-Methods Approach to Identify Farmers’ Perception and Practices Regarding Antibiotic Use in Vietnam" Social Sciences 11, no. 11: 531. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11110531
APA StyleThu, T. T. A., Chambers, M., Trung, N. V., Parker, M., & Hoa, N. T. (2022). A Mixed-Methods Approach to Identify Farmers’ Perception and Practices Regarding Antibiotic Use in Vietnam. Social Sciences, 11(11), 531. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci11110531