A Semiotic Analysis of Chan Aesthetics in Chinese Animation: Reconstruction, Naturalisation, and Cultural Resonance

Abstract

In recent years, Chinese animation has increasingly embraced traditional cultural elements, with Chan (Zen) Buddhism emerging as a rich source of philosophical and aesthetic inspiration. Existing research on the manifestation of Chan aesthetics in Chinese animation has explored the topic from diverse perspectives, yet analyses from a systematic semiotic perspective remain limited. Most symbolic studies reduce Chan elements to isolated visual signs with one-to-one meaning correspondences, neglecting the synergistic operation of narrative, visual, and auditory symbols in animation as an integrated system. Drawing on Roland Barthes’ theory of myth, this study employs a qualitative semiotic analysis to examine how Chan aesthetics are reconstructed and naturalised in Chinese animated works across different periods and genres. The analysis demonstrates that core Chan concepts are reconfigured into secularised audiovisual symbol systems. These systems translate abstract philosophy into tangible aesthetic forms and narrative structures, with meaning generated through the interplay of denotation, connotation, and myth. Furthermore, the representation of Chan aesthetics evolves across eras. Early animation relies on minimalist ink-wash visuals and implicit narrative; contemporary commercial animated film employs causal storytelling to embed Chan values in modern contexts; and Ye Youtian ‘poetic animation’ emphasises personal spiritual expression through non-linear imagery.

1. Introduction

As a widely popular medium, animation plays a vital role in disseminating national culture and showcasing national aesthetics (Hao 2025, p. 26). Outstanding animated works convey cultural significance through subtle audiovisual language, evoking emotional resonance and reflection among audiences (H. Liu 2025, pp. 131–32). Early Chinese animation left an indelible mark on world animation history. It was characterised by a unique national style, blending Eastern aesthetics and philosophical wisdom (L. Sun 2020). However, in the process of globalisation, Chinese animation faced severe homogenization, and at one point fell into the predicament of excessively imitating Japanese and American animation, losing its own national characteristics (Dai and Wang 2022, p. 110). To overcome this, Chinese animation has been exploring the path of nationalisation, attempting to rebuild its own cultural subjectivity and aesthetic uniqueness by integrating traditional Chinese culture (Li et al. 2024, p. 76). However, some Chinese animation still has the problem of overemphasising form while neglecting content and cultural connotations, leading to a simplistic expressive style and hollow, uninspired language that struggles to evoke emotional resonance and recognition among audiences (Fan and Feng 2021, p. 6; Li et al. 2024, p. 76).

Chan aesthetics have played an important role in the nationalisation of Chinese animation, and its philosophical and aesthetic ideas have had a profound influence on Chinese animation (Peng and Zhang 2025, pp. 119–21). Chan thought such as impermanence, enlightenment, emptiness, non-duality, and not established upon words can resonate with and evoke cultural identification among both historical and contemporary audiences (Yuan 2019). Whether it is the early animated classics like Feelings of Mountains and Waters (1963), Three Monks (1980), and The Shepherd’s Flute (1963); contemporary animated films such as Monkey King: Hero is Back (2015), White Snake: Origin (2019), and Ne Zha: Birth of the Demon Child (2019); independent animations represented by ‘poetic animation’ such as The Walk Man (2016); or wildly popular web animation shorts like Little Monk (2016), beloved by young audiences, all have explored and reimagined Chan Buddhism culture to varying degrees. These animations convey Chan Buddhist thought in an implicit way through visual symbols (Yuan 2019, pp. 65–76), narrative symbols, and auditory symbols, providing the possibility for viewers to generate emotional resonance and meaning understanding during the viewing process.

Existing research on Chan aesthetics and Chinese animation can generally be categorised into three strands: (1) starting from Chan aesthetic thought, exploring how it is transformed into aesthetic orientations in animation creation and establishing connections with narrative structure and visual composition (Dai and Wang 2022; Peng and Zhang 2025; Yuan 2019); (2) focusing on media technology and visual style, analysing the formal realisation paths of the Chan atmosphere (Huang 2021; S. Li 2015); and (3) taking specific works or genres as objects, discussing the presentation methods of Chan Buddhism thought through case studies, including comparative analyses of Chan animation from different countries (Wu et al. 2022; Liu and Zou 2024; Yuan 2021; Yang and Qiu 2024; Yin et al. 2024). Even though a few studies have approached the topic from a symbolic perspective, their discussions often interpret symbols as isolated visual images (Wu et al. 2022; Liu and Zou 2024). For instance, elements like water, the moon, and oxen are viewed as separate symbols representing specific Chan Buddhism concepts, thus remaining within a one-to-one correspondence between ‘symbol and meaning’. This ignores the fact that animation itself is a system interwoven with narrative, visual, and auditory symbols, whose meaning is generated through the synergistic operation of multiple symbolic elements (Bordwell et al. 2016; Metz 1991) and is not carried by isolated images. Consequently, research on how Chan aesthetics in animated texts are naturally transformed into an intrinsic meaning structure through specific narratives and visual symbols, and the mechanisms of its symbolic operation, remains limited.

To fill this research gap, this study employs Barthes’ semiotic theory for analysis. Barthes’ semiotics reveals the process by which cultural meaning is naturalised in the operation of symbols through a two-layered symbolic structure (Barthes 1972, pp. 114–17). This theoretical perspective shares similarities in operational logic with the way Chan Buddhism culture in animation achieves implicit expression through visual and narrative symbols, providing a suitable theoretical framework for systematically dissecting the construction and transmission mechanisms of Chan aesthetic symbols in animated texts. Within this theoretical framework, this study aims to address the following two core questions:

• How are Chan aesthetics naturally presented through the narrative, visual, and auditory symbols of animation?
• How does the representation of Chan aesthetics differ across different periods and types of Chinese animations?

By uncovering the symbolic mechanisms of Chan aesthetics in animation, this study transcends descriptive accounts of philosophical and aesthetic influence, offering a systematic semiotic interpretation of how Chan aesthetics are naturalised into intuitive meaning structures. It enhances understanding of the symbolic representation of Chan aesthetics in early and contemporary Chinese animation, and provides a theoretical framework for analysing how animation transforms abstract Eastern philosophy into perceptible aesthetic experiences across periods.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The Chan Aesthetic

Chan Buddhism (Chan zong) is an indigenous form of Chinese Buddhism that developed in the early sixth century CE and subsequently spread to the rest of East Asia (Japanese: Zen; Korean: Sôn; Vietnamese: Thiền) (Hershock 2023). It is characterised by a special transmission outside the scriptures (jiao wai bie chuan); not established upon words and letters (bu li wen zi); directly pointing to the human heart mind (zhi zhi ren xin); and seeing nature and becoming a Buddha (jian xing cheng fo) (Hershock 2023). With its localization in China, Chan gradually extended from religious cultivation to a broader cultural orientation, which later contributed to the development of Chan aesthetics (Yuan 2019, p. 17). Although Chan itself was not originally intended as an aesthetic activity, its long-term development has profoundly influenced artistic creation and the public’s aesthetic experience (Qi 1997, pp. 1–3; Yuan 2019, p. 7).

Chan aesthetics refer to an aesthetic thought that emerged and developed under the influence of Chan Buddhism (Yuan 2019, p. 7). It integrates theories from Indian Buddhist philosophy, merges with Daoist thought and Wei–Jin metaphysics, and further incorporates elements of Confucianism within a broader Chinese cultural and aesthetic framework (F. Sun 2025, pp. 3–4). It has exerted a far-reaching influence on Chinese poetry, calligraphy, painting, design, and contemporary media, including animation. However, existing research has shown that several Chan concepts are especially relevant to animation analysis because they can be translated into audiovisual signs and narrative structures, such as impermanence, non-duality, enlightenment, emptiness, and not relying on words and letters (Peng and Zhang 2025, p. 119; Yuan 2019, pp. 204–5). However, while existing work has identified these conceptual connections, there remains a need for more systematic textual analysis that clarifies how Chan aesthetics are constructed in animation through layered meaning-making and cross-case variation across different historical periods and genres.

2.2. Barthes’ Semiotics

Barthes’ semiotic theory examines meaning production in cultural texts through a dual-layered sign system. The first order (denotation) refers to the literal, surface meaning of a sign; the second order (connotation) involves implicit, cultural meanings; and ‘myth’ denotes a second-order sign system where existing signs become new signifiers conveying naturalised ideological meanings (Barthes 1968, 1972). It is a useful framework for examining how media texts communicate cultural meaning and social beliefs. This framework has become influential in visual culture and media studies and has been widely applied to the analysis of architecture (Permatasari 2018), photography (Herry et al. 2024), advertising, film (Lathif and Sari 2024), animation (Tanzil and Andriano 2023), and other cultural forms.

It is worth noting that narrative meaning is not produced by a single continuous action but emerges through the combination of different narrative stages and sequences of actions. Within this framework, the meanings constructed through characters’ interactions with objects or situations may shift across narrative stages, thereby contributing to the stage-based development of meaning in the narrative process (Barthes 1974). Therefore, the narrative analysis in this study is not confined to a single plot point or continuous action, but is carried out through a holistic examination of multiple narrative stages. In addition, within Barthes’ theoretical framework, meaning is not limited to the symbolic transmission at the narrative level. Barthes emphasises that visual form, composition, and visual details also participate in the process of meaning generation (Barthes 1977, pp. 32–41).

At the same time, sound, as a key dimension of audiovisual texts, plays a crucial role in shaping symbolic meaning in film. As film sound scholars have noted, music, ambient sound, and voice do not merely accompany the visual track but actively construct emotional and thematic layers that interact with narrative and visual signs (Altman 1992; Chion 2019). Therefore, the inclusion of visual, auditory, and narrative dimensions in semiotic analysis is justified.

In film studies, audiovisual elements are often considered in an integrated manner to examine the expression of cultural meaning and aesthetic spirit (Jiang and Suboh 2025), as seen in studies of Daoist aesthetics (X. Liu 2025) and Confucian aesthetics (Fang 2025). Within this context, Chan aesthetics in Chinese animation can be analysed not merely as visual cultural symbols, but as an integrated audiovisual mode that conveys layered aesthetic and philosophical meaning. In this regard, Barthesian semiotics contributes beyond existing studies of Chinese animation by explaining how Chan meanings are produced, layered, and naturalised across denotation, connotation, and myth within the integrated audiovisual text.

This study applies Barthesian semiotics to analyse the narrative, visual, and auditory representation of Chan aesthetics in selected Chinese animated films, exploring how these elements work together to construct multi-layered philosophical and aesthetic meanings.

3. Research Design

3.1. Research Methods

This study employs a qualitative approach, combining semiotic analysis with systematic coding and cross-case comparison. A qualitative approach is especially suitable for exploring meaning, understanding social and cultural phenomena, and developing interpretive insights through in-depth and contextual description rather than causal interpretation (Creswell and Poth 2016, pp. 7–9). Accordingly, this approach focuses on describing and interpreting the ongoing events and process of meaning construction, rather than predicting the results or measuring individual behaviour (Creswell and Poth 2016, pp. 7–10). The semiotic method analyses, dissects, and interprets meaning as embodied in text (Barthes 1968, pp. 9–11). In this study, the researcher remained non-participatory and acted as an observer, coding and interpreting the animated works. The research process follows three stages.

The first stage is sample selection. Purposive sampling was used to select 7 Chinese animated works across three periods and three genres, ensuring variation and comparability. The selection first drew on existing studies on Chinese animation and Chan aesthetics, prioritising works that have been repeatedly discussed and possess high academic visibility. On this basis, differentiated auxiliary criteria were applied according to the characteristics of different periods and animation types to enhance the representativeness of the samples. For contemporary commercial animated films, works with relatively high box office and audience ratings (e.g., over RMB 550 million and a Douban score above 7) were selected, including Big Fish & Begonia (2016), White Snake: Origin (2019), Ne Zha: Birth of the Demon (2019), and Ne Zha 2 (2025). For ‘poetic animation’, works recognised by major art awards were selected, represented by The Walk Man (2016). For early animation, representative works in the history of Chinese animation that embody Chan aesthetic artistic conception or draw on Chan-related narratives were selected, including Feelings of Mountains and Waters (1988) and The Shepherd’s Flute (1963).

The second stage is symbolic coding. A standardised Chan Aesthetic Symbol Coding Manual was developed and applied by the researcher to analyse the selected scenes, and is provided as a Supplementary Material. In terms of segment selection, this study adopts macro-level meaningful segments as the unit of analysis, referring to segments that constitute relatively complete units of meaning in narrative or expression (e.g., atmosphere construction, cognitive shifts, or conflict resolution). A segment is included when identifiable visual, auditory, or narrative symbols are present and can be mapped onto at least one Chan aesthetic category. For longer segments, one to three key shots are identified as analytical nodes, while the segment as a whole is retained to preserve the integrity of meaning. Coding dimensions were organised into three sections. The first (1) is symbol type: visual symbols such as blank space, ink wash, and colour; narrative symbols such as character conflicts and growth trajectories; and auditory symbols such as guqin, flute, and natural sounds. The second (2) is Chan concepts: impermanence, non-attachment, non-duality, enlightenment, not-established-upon words and letters. The third (3) is the meaning layer, including denotation, connotation, and myth.

The third stage involves cross-case comparison. The researcher analyses differences in Chan symbol representation across periods and genres to identify recurring patterns and historical shifts in symbolic strategies.

3.2. Sample Collection

Primary materials were collected by extracting key scenes from the selected animated works via Tencent Video+, with three to five scenes selected from each work based on their alignment with core Chan concepts and symbolic density. Secondary data consisted of academic studies on Chan philosophy, semiotics, and animation studies drawn from SSCI-indexed journals, monographs, and authoritative databases such as JSTOR and Web of Science.

4. Results

4.1. Symbolic Reconstruction of Chan Aesthetics in Animation

This section takes the five core concepts in Chan aesthetics as the analysis dimensions and examines the specific presentation of Chan thought in Chinese animation. These five dimensions are not fixed categories that are cut off from each other, but aesthetic orientations that are interconnected and often intertwined in the same work. Therefore, the following sections are not an isolated analysis of individual cases, but a systematic examination of the aesthetic symbolization mechanism of Chan Buddhism in Chinese animation from different aspects.

4.1.1. ‘Impermanence’ (Wu Chang) and ‘Non-Attachment’ (Wu Zhi)

Chan Buddhism believes that all dharmas are impermanent (Hershock 2023). All things are in the process of becoming, existence, decaying, and emptiness. The principles of ‘no-thought’ as the core (wu nian wei zong), non-appearance as a basis (wu xiang wei ti), and non-abiding as the foundation (wu zhu wei wang) constitute a practical path for responding to impermanence (Yang and Qiu 2024, pp. 4–5). No-thought (wu nian) is not the negation of cognition, but a mode of awareness that dissolves attachment by relinquishing fixation on stability in an impermanent world (Yang and Qiu 2024, p. 4). Non-appearance (wu xiang) refers to the impermanence of things as they are, and ‘appearance’ can refer to all concrete things in the world (Yang and Qiu 2024, p. 5). In animated narratives, the Chan concepts of no-thought, non-appearance, and non-abiding are not presented through abstract doctrinal exposition. Instead, they are concretized through characters’ attachments to identity, outward appearance, and social labels, as well as the conflicts arising from such attachments. The principle of non-attachment (wuzhi) in Chan Buddhism encourages individuals to let go of excessive fixation on material objects, rigid concepts, or predetermined outcomes (Peng and Zhang 2025, p. 122). It promotes a state of fluidity, openness, and spontaneity in both thought and action (Cleary 2000). This is reflected in the following animated works, as shown in

Table 1. Impermanence in Nezha: Birth of the Demon.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
Nezha: Birth of the Demon (55:10–57:40)	Villagers wielding sticks and other tools rush over, accusing Nezha of abducting their little sister and declaring him a demon. They beat him with their fists and feet.	The villagers’ violent reaction reflects their fixation on Nezha’s external identity as a ‘demon child’. By equating this visible label with moral essence, they ignore Nezha’s actual act of rescuing the girl. This illustrates how attachment to outward appearances and preconceived labels can distort judgement and obscure factual reality.	This episode naturalises a critique of appearance-based modes of interpretation and, in a reverse sense, points toward the Chan Buddhist notion of non-attachment to appearances and seeing reality beyond form. As stated in the Diamond Sutra, ‘All forms everywhere are unreal and false’ (Yampolsky 1967, p. 130).

and

Table 2. Impermanence in Nezha: Birth of the Demon and White Snake: Origin.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
Nezha: Birth of the Demon (1:14:05–1:14:13)	The scene depicts a dark and gloomy mountain landscape with towering peaks. Shen Gongbao angrily declares to Ao Bing, ‘Preconceived notions in people’s hearts are like immovable mountains. No matter how hard you try, you’ll never shift them’.	The metaphor of inner prejudice being as stubborn and immovable as mountains reflects stereotypical views of demons, solidifying into long-held beliefs that obstruct true understanding. From the perspective of Chan, prejudices in people’s hearts are appearances. People become biased because of their attachment to appearances and thus cannot see true nature.	This scene naturalises a condition of ‘attachment’. People form ‘attachment to appearances’ through ‘discriminating mind’, becoming trapped in the delusion of ‘taking appearances as reality’. This aligns with the principle that ‘all phenomena are illusory’. The ‘mountain of preconceptions’ is an illusion constructed by the ‘discriminating mind’, and its ‘immovability’ represents the subjective predicament of unbroken attachment.
White Snake: Origin (1:05:10–1:06:49)	Ah Xuan, transformed into a demon, returns to warn villagers of danger. A national preceptor labels him a ‘demon’, and villagers retreat, with a child throwing a stone at him. Ah Xuan insists, ‘I am a demon now, but I am still Ah Xuan.’	The villagers’ rejection reflects attachment to the ‘demon’ label, reducing identity to surface categories and obscuring Ah Xuan’s benevolent intent. Ah Xuan’s statement breaks this attachment by acknowledging his form but affirming his intrinsic moral essence.	‘Demon’ is constructed as a social label that overrides individual agency. The scene translates Chan’s ‘breaking attachment to form’ into a relatable conflict, suggesting that true identity lies beyond external forms, a naturalised cultural myth resonating with contemporary audiences’ rejection of prejudice.

.

Myth:

In these two works, the animation repeatedly constructs and naturalises a meaning structure regarding prejudices in people’s hearts. Members of society often quickly judge the good and evil of others based on identity labels, and once this judgement is formed, it obscures the understanding of specific behaviours and real situations. This prejudice does not stem from rationality, but rather from a collective cognition that is constantly repeated and solidified. This misunderstanding does not shape prejudice into an individual’s moral failing, but rather presents itself as a socially accepted way of cognition, a psychological mechanism that maintains order through appearances and identity labels.

From the perspective of Chan philosophy, this mechanism reflects an attachment to ‘form’. People equate identity labels with essence, clinging to the binary opposition of ‘human and demon’, ‘good and evil’. The animation constantly undermines these oppositions in its narrative, allowing the audience to perceive the harm and absurdity of prejudice. In this process, prejudice is no longer merely a character’s dialogue or narrative background, but is naturally transformed into a cognitive approach that requires examination and transformation. In this way, the work implicitly guides the audience toward a Chan Buddhist understanding that transcends attachment to fixed forms.

4.1.2. ‘Non-Duality’ (Bu Er)

In Chan philosophy, ‘non-duality’ is a concept rooted in the Vimalakīrti Sutra. Non-duality denotes an understanding that all phenomena lack inherent essence and arise through mutual dependence. Such an understanding goes beyond binary oppositions, including those between form and emptiness or between existence and non-existence. Adopting a non-dual standpoint enables the dissolution of attachment and delusion, thereby facilitating advancement along the path to enlightenment. The ‘two’ negated by non-duality signifies conceptual differentiation, and non-duality thus involves avoiding fixation on extreme oppositions such as excess and deficiency (Peng and Zhang 2025, p. 127). This is reflected in the following animated works, as shown in

Table 3. Non-duality in Nezha: Birth of the Demon Child.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
Nezha: Birth of the Demon Child (1:39:00–1:40:00)	To save the people of Chentang Temple, Ao Bing and Nezha join forces and used their magic. Nezha’s red fire magic and Ao Bing’s blue ice magic, which were initially opposed, turn into a synergy and merge into one.	The transformation of ice and fire from opposition to synergy metaphorically represents the core Chan Buddhist idea of breaking down dualistic oppositions. Distinctions such as good and evil or right and wrong are not absolute (Hershock 2023). Opposition stems from people’s discriminating mind, that is, their attachment to labelled perceptions. When one lets go of the preconceived notion of equating fire with evil and ice with good, the two forces can transform and coexist in the common goal of protecting the people.	This plot naturally transforms what were originally seen as opposing forces into a form of coexistence, thus neutralising the binary division between good and evil, right and wrong. The Chan philosophical concept of ‘non-duality’, where good and evil, right and wrong are not entirely opposed, is expressed naturally (Nagatomo 2006, pp. 63–67).

,

Table 4. Non-duality in White Snake: Origin.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
White Snake: Origin (1:21:54–1:22:30)	Villagers debate rescuing Ah Xuan. A dog, now in its demon form, argues, ‘We are monsters, but we risked our lives to save you.’ Villagers label the dog a ‘demon’ in response.	From a Chan perspective, the villagers’ words reflect their attachment to appearances. They are bound by the superficial label of demons, trapped in a cognitive loop of defining good and evil by appearances. However, the yellow dog’s actions align with the Chan principle of non-attachment to appearances, using concrete deeds to shatter the illusory distinction between humans and demons.	This narrative myth naturally conveys the core Chan Buddhist concept of non-duality, dissolving the absolute opposition between human and demon, good and evil, to reveal the true nature of all phenomena as equal and without distinction (Yampolsky 1967, pp. 134–37). The villagers’ words and the belly-band dog’s actions form a concrete expression of Chan thought, emphasising transcending appearances to see non-duality.
White Snake: Origin (47:48–49:33)	Ah Xuan and Xiao Bai step out of the enclosed space. Xiao Bai then suggests separation to Ah Xuan, pointing out that humans and demons are different. Ah Xuan responds that although humans and demons belong to different paths, an emotional connection still exists between them, and he promises to find a way to resolve their current situation.	From the Chan perspective, Xiaobai’s view of a distinction between humans and demons is an attachment to ‘form’. She accepts this binary opposition and treats identity labels as an insurmountable chasm. However, Ah Xuan’s response breaks down this attachment to binary opposition. This mode of thinking of seeing the essence beyond forms precisely aligns with the core Chan principle of ‘All forms are illusory’ (Hershock 2023).	This contrast points to the Chan Buddhist philosophy of ‘not being attached to appearances and realizing one’s true nature.’ Through dialogue between the characters, the abstract Chan principles are transformed into concrete plots of ‘true feelings transcending identity’, allowing the audience to perceive the simple wisdom of letting go of labels and seeing one’s true self without needing to know Chan terminology.

and

Table 5. Non-duality in Ne Zha 2.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
Ne Zha 2 (52:46–56:03)	When Ne Zha expresses concern about his appearance, Ao Bing reassures him that despite his flaws in looks and demeanour, he possesses a strong will and a kind heart. Later, on an open platform suspended between the starry sky and the sea of clouds, Ao Bing emerges from Ne Zha’s body and the two stand together in conversation. Ne Zha then speaks of his guilt toward his parents and states that whether he becomes a demon or an immortal will be his own choice.	Through this progressive exchange, the sequence gradually weakens fixed binary oppositions such as beauty and ugliness, appearance and essence, and demon and immortal, so that the characters are no longer defined by outward form or predetermined identity, but instead move toward an affirmation of inner nature and subjective choice. In this sense, the sequence presents not merely emotional consolation, but a mode of understanding inflected by Chan non-duality, one that also resonates with the notions of perceiving beyond appearances and recognising one’s true nature (Hershock 2023).	This continuous sequence naturalises a mode of understanding in which the subject is no longer defined by a single appearance or a fixed label. Personal value is not determined by outward form, inherited identity, or oppositional categories, but is rearticulated through relational exchange and self-choice. In this way, non-duality does not appear as an abstract philosophical proposition; rather, it is translated into a contemporary animated experience of interpersonal understanding, the loosening of identity boundaries, and self-affirmation.

.

Myth:

These works do not remain at the level of simply negating binary oppositions; rather, they reconstruct them as relational structures that are fluid and open to transformation. Categories that were previously positioned as oppositional are gradually dissolved through narrative development and reorganised into generative states oriented toward relationality and interaction.

Through the repeated depiction of the loosening of identity labels and the transformation of value dichotomies, these domestic mythological animations naturally construct an understanding that ‘good and evil, right and wrong, humans and demons are not absolutely opposed, but can transform and coexist under shared purposes’ as an intuitive cultural cognitive pathway. In this process, the Chan Buddhist notion of ‘breaking binary oppositions’ no longer appears as an abstract philosophical proposition; instead, it is naturalised through animated narrative and visual symbols as a self-evident framework of meaning that requires no deliberate explanation.

4.1.3. ‘Enlightenment’ (Wu)

In Chan Buddhism, ‘enlightenment’ refers to an intuitive realisation of one’s true nature or reality, emphasising direct insight over textual knowledge or logical reasoning (Hershock 2023). Chan master Qingyuan Weixin proposed that the three realms of ‘enlightenment’ are ‘mountains were mountains and rivers were rivers, mountains were no longer mountains and rivers were no longer rivers, seeing mountains are just mountains and rivers are just rivers’ (Chen and Zhang 2024, p. 74). The first stage is a primitive and simple state, referring to the intuitive feeling towards the things around us; the second stage is the ‘initial enlightenment’, which is one-sidedly immersed in negativity and lacks affirmation; and the third stage is ‘complete enlightenment’, which is a view that has both distinctiveness and affirmation, both commonality and independence (Garfield and Priest 2009; pp. 72–80). In some Chinese animations, such as Ne Zha (2019) and Monkey King: Hero Is Back (2015), the characters’ growth trajectories often unfold gradually through conflicts, setbacks, and transformations. Their spiritual changes echo the three-stage structure of ‘enlightenment’, thus allowing relevant philosophical concepts to be presented naturally in the narrative process (Peng and Zhang 2025, p. 127; Liu and Zou 2024, p. 164; Yuan 2019, pp. 131–32). Based on this narrative phenomenon, the study takes Nezha (2019) as an example and analyses the relevant animation clips from a semiotic perspective, as shown in

Table 6. Stage 1 of enlightenment in Ne Zha: Birth of the Demon Child.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
Stage 1— Ne Zha: Birth of the Demon Child (24:12–27:29)	Ne Zha, labelled a ‘demon child’. The villagers were afraid of him and would run away and hide. Even his peers would secretly discuss how to deal with him. He disguises himself to join his peers’ discussions, then reveals his form and chases them away.	At this stage, Nezha’s understanding remains rooted in the externally assigned identity, much like the cognitive state of ‘seeing a mountain as a mountain.’ He regards the social label of ‘Demon Pill’ as a true definition of his own essence and constantly repeats and performs this identity through destructive behaviour.	The narrative in this stage presents the identity labels given to Nezha by the outside world as the direct basis for judging his behaviour and identity, making the title “demon child” a natural explanation for his appearance and behaviour.

and

Table 7. Stages 2–3 of enlightenment in Ne Zha: Birth of the Demon Child.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
Stage 2— Ne Zha: Birth of the Demon Child (1:07:56–1:12:43)	Shen Gongbao reveals Nezha’s true identity as the ‘demon pill’. Nezha’s emotions quickly shift from anticipation and joy to gloom, pain, and anger. Subsequently, Nezha transforms into a demon, unleashing aggressive power, causing the villagers to panic and flee.	During this stage, Nezha’s original self-perception begins to be drastically shaken. Nezha’s transformation into a demon signifies that he has begun to question and challenge his current identity. His previously stable labels and cognitive framework are shattered, demonstrating the stage-specific cognitive characteristic of ‘seeing a mountain as not a mountain.’ (Peng and Zhang 2025, pp. 127–28).	This plot naturally transforms the breaking and rebellion against existing knowledge into an essential stage of individual growth, approaching the truth through negation. This aligns with the Chan Buddhist concept of breaking through appearances and the second stage of ‘seeing a mountain as not a mountain’.
Stage 3— Ne Zha: Birth of the Demon Child (1:32:45–1:34:57)	During the battle, Ao Bing emphasises Nezha’s destined nature as a ‘demon pill’, claiming his fate was already predetermined. Nezha responds, “My fate is in my own hands, not in the heavens; whether I am a demon or an immortal is up to me”, before unleashing his full power and ultimately defeating Ao Bing.	Nezha burns his life force to fight Ao Bing. His actions no longer stem from rebellion against his identity, but from inner awareness and choice. Nezha’s ‘enlightenment’ lies in the fact that identity is no longer a constraint. He accepts his “demon” origins but transcends the negative definition of ‘demon’. He returns to the state of “seeing mountains as mountains,” but this is a return to one’s true nature after transcending appearances.	The scene dismantles the myth of ‘birth determines destiny’, naturalising the character’s enlightenment as self-actualization through choice and action, thus presenting a cognitive state that returns to the action itself after experiencing negation. This meaning structure embodies the return to the essence characteristic of the third stage of ‘seeing the mountain as a mountain again.’

.

Myth:

In this animated film, enlightenment is mythologized as a secular narrative of self-becoming. Rather than appearing as explicit Chan doctrine, it is naturalised as a familiar structure of growth in which doubt, inner conflict, and breakthrough lead to the reconfiguration of the self. As viewers follow the character’s development, they are gradually drawn into a reflective aesthetic experience—first noticing the character’s visible suffering and conflict, then sensing the intense self-doubt, inner struggle, and psychological tension beneath this transformation, and finally witnessing a return to one’s original mind, with awakening made manifest through choice and action. In this way, Chan-related enlightenment is naturalised as a broadly intelligible cultural logic.

4.1.4. ‘Emptiness’ (Kong)

The ‘emptiness’ emphasised in Chan Buddhism is not nothingness or a denial of conventional existence, but a way of being that transcends attachment to inherent existence. It is an understanding of the relational nature of all phenomena and lived experience (Hershock 2023). ‘Emptiness’ is a fundamental characteristic of Chan philosophy and also its ontological category (F. Sun 2025, p. 3). Inspired by Chan Buddhist thought, the aesthetic concept of artistic conception (yi jing) was formed, and the highest level of artistic conception in Chinese art is the Chan realm (Zehou Li 2021). The beauty of ethereality is the primary manifestation of the Chan realm of emptiness (Dai and Wang 2022, p. 114). It is often achieved through methods such as leaving blank spaces (liu bai) and the interplay of emptiness and fullness (xu shi xiang sheng) (Mao 2020, pp. 756–57), thereby creating a tranquil, serene, and lingering aesthetic realm for the artwork, allowing the viewer to experience inner peace and clarity amid plainness (Zhang 2021, pp. 70–71). This is reflected in the following animated works, as shown in

Table 8. Emptiness in White Snake: Origin.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
White Snake: Origin (22.40–27.40)	The water is calm, shimmering with a deep blue lustre, and a small boat moves slowly across its surface. In the distance, mountains are shrouded in mist, their outlines appearing and disappearing, the fog permeating the landscape.	The water surface, boats, and distant mountains present a layered relationship of ‘the interdependence of emptiness and substance’ (xu shi xiang sheng) in the fog, intentionally weakening the boundaries between mountains and water, far and near (Guan 2024, pp. 5–6). The overall effect presents the Chan aesthetic characteristics of ‘emptiness’ such as stillness, elegance, coolness, and tranquillity.	The composition and colour scheme of the scene exhibit typical characteristics of Eastern aesthetics, with the deep blue water and verdant mountains creating an ethereal and poetic atmosphere. This reflects the pursuit of beauty of artistic conception (yi jing) in traditional Eastern aesthetics and echoes the subtle and restrained aesthetic tastes of Eastern culture (Zehou Li 1994).

,

Table 9. Emptiness in Big Fish & Begonia and the walk man.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
Big Fish & Begonia (11:01–13:54)	In the vast sea and underwater space, figures swim alongside schools of fish and dolphins; at night, a brother and sister sit in a small boat, the sister leaning against it as she sleeps, the brother playing a dolphin whistle, and a red whale slowly approaching in the distance. The scene is composed of a large expanse of sea, open space, sparse subjects, and a slow pace, creating an overall atmosphere of tranquillity and serenity.	Large areas of white space and low-saturation colours weaken narrative tension, creating a serene and expansive visual atmosphere, echoing the Chan aesthetic emphasis on ‘emptiness’. The extension of space softens the boundaries of the image, producing a sense of openness and inclusiveness; the harmonious coexistence of humans and nature reflects the blurring of the boundaries between the subject and the environment. The sounds of the sea and the distant whistle reinforce the silent and ethereal atmosphere, transforming ‘emptiness’ into a perceptible aesthetic experience.	This visual presentation, using natural space as a medium, places characters in a vast and silent environment, blurring the boundary between the subject and the environment, thus naturally transforming ‘emptiness’ into an aesthetic experience that requires no explanation. The tranquillity, inclusiveness, and openness that ‘emptiness’ points to are thus transformed into a perceptible form of Eastern aesthetic sensibility in contemporary animation.
‘Poetic animation’ the walk man (02:56–04:12)	The monk and the dog are walking forward, with a large area of blank space on the screen. And then, the monk rides a small wooden plank towards a distant hill, leaving the dog on the shore to watch the monk leave as he gets further and further away.	A small boat adrift amidst vast mountains and waters symbolises the insignificance and solitude of the individual in nature, while also hinting at a sense of freedom and transcendence. This aligns with the Chan Buddhist ideal of pursuing inner peace and harmony with nature (Huang 2021, p. 11). On an artistic level, the grey and white colour scheme, simple composition, and large areas of white space, combined with the interplay of void and solid landscape elements, convey a sense of ethereal tranquillity.	This poetic expression, centred on blank space, not only naturally presents the tranquil and ethereal characteristics of Chan aesthetic, but also provides viewers with a way to ‘slow down’ and find spiritual refuge in today’s fast-paced society. It gives traditional Chan a new vitality through ‘poetic animation’, completing the ideological construction of Chan aesthetics in the contemporary context.

and

Table 10. Emptiness in Feelings of Mountains and Waters.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
Feelings of Mountains and Waters (00:00–02:20)	A master waits on the shore. An apprentice rows to fetch him, and they travel through misty mountains and rivers. The overall style of the scene is mainly black and white, supplemented by light blue, and the landscape is presented with simplified ink-wash brushstrokes.	Against an extensive blank background, with mountains, rivers and a boat as accents, the interplay of void and solid in figures and scenery creates an ethereal ink-wash mood and a vast spatial vibe of heaven and earth. This visual presentation echoes Chan Buddhism thought of ‘form is emptiness, emptiness is form (se kong bu er)’. The ‘void’ of blank space is not nothingness (F. Sun 2025, p. 7), but interacts and coexists with the ‘form’ of tangible mountains, rivers and figures.	Through a simple narrative of a master and his disciples travelling by boat, and the interplay of void and solid ink-wash imagery, the clip naturally presents the spaciousness and tranquillity created by the landscape. The ‘emptiness’ of Chan aesthetics is thus transformed into a perceptible visual aesthetic experience. This dynamic ink-wash presentation not only breaks through the limitations of traditional static landscape painting but also, through animation, makes the aesthetics of ‘emptiness’ and the state of ‘harmony between man and nature’ a classic example of the inheritance of traditional Chan aesthetics in the animation.

.

Myth:

In the animation, distant mountains, small boats, and a tranquil atmosphere are frequently used to create a sense of serene beauty. This ‘transcendent beauty’ (chao jue zhi mei) and ‘pure beauty’ (chun su zhi mei) revealed by Chan-inspired imagery are precisely the transcendent aesthetic mode (yi ge) and plain naturalness (ping dan tian zhen) valued in the Chinese artistic tradition, and have long been regarded as the highest pursuit of Chinese art (Zehou Li 2021). This vivid, natural, and ethereal visual artistic conception (Yi Jing) is thus not only an aesthetic feature of Eastern aesthetics (Zong 2023), but becomes a self-evident framework through which viewers intuitively apprehend ‘emptiness’.

4.1.5. ‘Not Established upon Words and Letters’ (Bu Li Wen Zi)

In Chan thought, language has limitations and is often treated as an obstacle to true realisation (Hershock 2023). The Chan thought of ‘not established upon words and letters’ refers to the idea that genuine realisation is not dependent on textual, linguistic, or rational thinking, but arises through direct, intuitive, experiential insight (Hershock 2023). This philosophy aligns closely with the artistic principle of ‘emphasising meaning over words’ (zhong yi qing yan) (Yuan 2019, pp. 159–61). This aesthetic orientation reflects a long-standing principle in Chinese aesthetics. It emphasises implicit meaning rather than straightforward verbal expression, which is conveyed through images, atmosphere, and hints rather than direct statements (Jullien 2009, pp. 19–26). This is reflected in the following animated works, as shown in

Table 11. ‘Not established upon words and letters’ in Feelings of Mountains and Waters and The Cowherd’s Flute.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
Feelings of Mountains and Waters (00:00–19:00)	The film primarily uses ink painting as its visual expression, with no dialogue, narration, or written text throughout. The visuals present natural imagery such as mountains, clouds, and rivers. The narrative unfolds through the story of an old musician’s chance encounter with a young boy, his teaching of the instrument, and his departure by boat, with the boy bidding him farewell with his instrument.	In the film’s entirely non-verbal narrative structure, the sound of the guqin (a traditional Chinese stringed instrument) serves as a crucial sonic symbol, echoing the interactions between characters and the progression of the plot. Just as Chan Buddhism emphasises the ability to perceive the essence of things without the aid of words, through intuition and understanding (Hershock 2023), even without language, the audience can still perceive the story through visual and auditory language.	This narrative style breaks free from the constraints of language and instead relies on natural imagery and music to construct a space of meaning. It naturally presents the aesthetic view of ‘emphasizing artistic conception over explicit verbal expression’ that extends from the Chan philosophy of ‘not relying on words’.
The Cowherd’s Flute (00:00–20:38)	The visuals revolve around a shepherd boy and water buffalo, presenting a continuous sequence of events including herding, playing, resting, and returning home. Natural landscapes such as mountains, streams, and mist appear repeatedly, forming the main visual space. The soundtrack, dominated by flute music, runs throughout the film, appearing continuously as the plot and scenes change.	The sound of the flute becomes the most prominent sonic symbol in the animation, continuously echoing the characters’ actions and changing situations on screen. The ox is often seen as a symbol of ‘original mind’, and the process of herding cattle metaphorically represents the alignment with, tempering of, and insight into the subject’s inner state (Dai and Wang 2022, p. 114). The animation avoids explicit explanation and instead embeds this metaphor in childlike everyday scenes, letting viewers grasp it through feeling.	The film unfolds its story without verbal explanation, presenting the relationship between the shepherd boy and the buffalo as an everyday and natural state of life. Viewers can understand the development of the situation with the help of visuals and music without the need for explanation or clarification, thus making the aesthetic approach of ‘not relying on words but focusing on experience’ feel natural during the viewing process.

and

Table 12. ‘Not established upon words and letters’ in the walk man.

Scene (Work, Timeframe)	Denotation	Connotation	Myth
‘poetic animation’ the walk man (00:00–04:35)	The short film is presented in a black-and-white ink-wash style. It opens with a character accidentally landing on a small boat, travelling with a dog through mountains and water. After the boat reaches the shore, the character moves and pauses amidst mist, mountains, and water. The middle section presents a visual contrast: a group moving in the same direction, while the protagonist travels alone in the opposite direction. The final section shows the character drifting towards a distant island on a wooden plank. The entire film has no dialogue, relying solely on visual composition, movement rhythm, and music to drive the narrative.	The interplay of mountains, water, clouds, and mist dissolves physical boundaries, subtly echoing the core Chan thought of emptiness and void. The companionship and stillness of the figures and dogs embody the Chan philosophy of the interdependence of self and object (wu wo xiang yi), conveying an aesthetic experience of observing the mind through the external world. The act of walking alone in reverse points to the Chan attitude of transcending the mundane and seeking inner peace, aligning with the practice logic of not following the crowd and seeking inward (Huang 2021, p. 11). The narrative form without dialogue allows meaning to be generated through the audience’s immersive experience, corresponding to the Chan concept of heart-to-heart transmission without relying on written words.	The film does not convey explicit ideas through language, but instead places the characters in changing circumstances, allowing the audience to experience the meaning through the characters’ movements and the shifting spaces. Ultimately, solitary walking and retreating to nature are encoded as spiritual choices countering modern collective anxiety. Returning to nature and contemplating the environment through the mind become spiritual pathways to dissolve worldly restlessness, completing the ideological construction of Chan aesthetics within a contemporary context.

.

Myth:

In the works mentioned above, whether it is the landscape and the sound of the zither, the shepherd boy and the flute, the conflict and cooperation among monks, or the lonely journey of a person in a poetic short film, they do not rely on the direct communication of language or words. Instead, they use images such as landscapes and nature to create an ethereal and distant atmosphere, and unfold the narrative process through the coordination of music and visual rhythm. This allows the audience to naturally feel the meaning and emotions of the story in an immersive experience, thus leading to an aesthetic understanding that moves from external circumstances to inner feelings.

4.2. Differences in Chan Aesthetic Representation Across Periods and Genres

Chan aesthetics have been an important philosophical and aesthetic framework in Chinese animation (Peng and Zhang 2025). However, their representation varies across different periods and animation types, and is rearticulated, reconstructed, and transformed to varying degrees. The following discussion offers a comparative analysis based on selected cases.

4.2.1. Visual Symbols as Sign System

In terms of visual presentation, both early animation and contemporary animated films as well as ‘poetic animation’ all retain the Chan Buddhism imagery such as mountains and water. Early animation and ‘poetic animation’ mainly adopt hand-drawn ink-wash techniques, with abundant blank space, and the overall atmosphere is relatively simple and ethereal. The difference is that early animation is often accompanied by a few colour accents, while ‘poetic animation’ mainly uses black and white. However, contemporary animated films have undergone significant changes in their visual presentation. With the development of 3D technology, the colours of the images have become more vibrant, and the spatial layers have become more complex. The expression of Chan realm no longer relies on ‘simplicity’, but is achieved through grand scenes, soft tones, and the vast space created by technology. This visual presentation retains the aesthetic features of ‘tranquility’, ‘emptiness’, ‘distance’, and ‘stillness’ in its form, but its symbolic density has significantly increased. From a semiotic perspective, early animations constructed the signifier through ‘subtraction’, allowing the Chan realm essence to naturally emerge in the form, while contemporary animations reshaped the signifier system through ‘addition’, recreating the ‘ethereal’ atmosphere in the visual spectacle. This difference reflects the adaptive adjustments of the Chan aesthetic symbol system under different media conditions.

4.2.2. Narrative Mechanisms of Meaning Construction

Early animation presented everyday situations through simple, short stories, with a slow and natural narrative pace, allowing the Chan realm to emerge naturally during the viewing experience, embodying the Chan aesthetic spirit of ‘not relying on words’. Contemporary Ye Youtian’s ‘poetic animation’ employs non-linear, poetic narratives, using imagery juxtaposition, background music, and rhythmic control to leave open space for the generation of meaning and to convey a Chan-inflected pursuit of inner tranquillity (Huang 2021). In contrast, contemporary animated film follows a more mature causal narrative logic, setting ‘enlightenment’ as a key node in character growth within a structure of introduction, development, climax, and resolution. Characters must first experience the pain and conflict brought about by obsession, then achieve transformation through enlightenment, ultimately driving the plot towards its conclusion. From Barthes’ perspective of connotation, different narrative logics determine how Chan aesthetic meaning is generated—either as an open aesthetic experience or as a value orientation guided by the narrative structure.

4.2.3. Cultural Signification

At the core cultural level, the Chan realm in early animations primarily manifested as a direct conveyance of Chan philosophy. Its cultural orientation emphasised harmonious coexistence between humanity and nature, the realisation of one’s true nature, and a life attitude transcending utilitarianism (Peng and Zhang 2025). In Ye Youtian’s ‘Poetic animation’, the Chan emphasis on detachment and the realisation of one’s true nature is further transformed into a spiritual choice in response to the restlessness and distractions of secular life. It foregrounds the pursuit of inner stillness, remaining true to oneself rather than drifting with the tide, and the search for a spiritual dwelling place. The Chan realm in contemporary animated films manifests as a creative transformation of traditional Chan aesthetics. While retaining core images such as ‘emptiness’ and ‘enlightenment’, its symbolic system incorporates contemporary context and characteristics. It increasingly engages with modern values, such as the awakening of individual will and the dissolution of identity boundaries (Zhuying Li 2024, p. 6), making Chan aesthetics a cultural myth that can resonate emotionally with contemporary audiences.

5. Conclusions and Suggestion

Based on Roland Barthes’ semiotic theory, this study examines the symbolic construction and naturalisation of Chan aesthetics in Chinese animation and offers a case-based comparison of differences in the representation of Chan aesthetics across periods and animation types. Rather than merely identifying isolated Chan symbols, it shows that Chan aesthetic meaning is organised across denotation, connotation, and myth and rearticulated into an intelligible aesthetic and cultural experience.

First, the analysis suggests that the naturalisation of Chan aesthetics in Chinese animation operates through several interrelated semiotic levels. At the level of denotation, concrete elements such as blank space, ink-wash imagery, character movement, narrative conflict, and sound design provide the perceptible basis for meaning. At the level of connotation, these elements are further connected to Chan aesthetic concepts such as emptiness, impermanence, enlightenment, and non-duality. At the level of myth, Chan aesthetics are no longer confined to explicit philosophical expression, but are transformed into broader cultural, aesthetic, and affective meanings. The research shows that Chan thought is not directly presented in animated texts as static philosophical content, but is rather constantly reconstructed and naturalised through a dynamic audiovisual symbol system.

Second, a case-based comparison shows that Chan aesthetics are articulated through different representational paths across periods and animation types, while retaining a shared visual Chan sensibility, particularly in their visual rendering of emptiness. In the early animated works, they are conveyed more directly through restrained visual form, simple narrative structure, and a relatively close relation between image and philosophical and aesthetic implications. In contemporary commercial animated films, Chan aesthetic and philosophical meanings are internalised into character-centred plots of conflict, transformation, and self-realisation, where concepts such as impermanence, enlightenment, and non-duality are naturalised within mainstream narrative development. Ye Youtian’s ‘poetic animation’ continues the visual Chan sensibility and the nonverbal expressive mode of ‘not relying on words’, while placing greater emphasis on inner stillness and transforming the Chan emphasis on detachment and the realisation of one’s true nature into a spiritual response to the restlessness and distractions of secular life. Taken together, these differences suggest that Chan aesthetics in Chinese animation are reconfigured through distinct visual forms, narrative structures, and cultural orientations rather than expressed through a single stable model.

Third, the presentation of Chan aesthetics in Chinese animation is a process of symbolic construction through decontextualization and re-naturalisation. Rather than remaining within its original religious and philosophical contexts, Chan-related meanings are reconfigured into cultural meanings that resonate with contemporary emotional and aesthetic expectations. This not only provides a semiotic framework for understanding the expression of Chan aesthetics in contemporary animation but also offers a reference path for exploring the creative transformation of traditional culture in modern media.

Future suggestions:

• This study is limited by the relatively small number of cases included in each animation category. Some relevant works were not incorporated, and certain animation forms, such as online animation represented by Little Monk, remain outside the present scope. Future research could incorporate more cases and provide a more systematic analysis of different types of Chinese animation.
• Future research could investigate viewers’ aesthetic experiences, emotional responses, and cultural identification in relation to Chan aesthetics in Chinese animation, thereby offering empirical insights into the audience reception and rearticulation of traditional cultural meanings in contemporary media contexts.
• Future research may also consider possible differences in the understanding of culturally specific meanings related to Chan aesthetics among audiences from different backgrounds.