Performance Indicators of Printed Construction Materials: a Durability-Based Approach
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Normative and Regulatory Contexts
2.1. Prescriptive Approach
- The maximum water-efficiency/equivalent binder ratio,
- The minimum strength class of the concrete, the minimum content of equivalent binder, and the minimum air content.
2.2. Performance Approach
Durability Indicators
- General durability indicators valid for different types of degradation (corrosion of reinforcements, alkali reaction...).
- Sustainability indicators specific to a given degradation process, such as alkali reaction or freezing.
- Porosity accessible to water,
- Diffusion coefficient (apparent or effective) of chloride ions,
- Gas permeability,
- Permeability to liquid water, portlandite content Ca(OH)2.
- Permeability to liquid water varies according to the saturation rate. Figure 4 shows the evolution of water permeability as a function of saturation rates. It shows that for S ≤ 40%, the transport in the liquid phase is negligible, whereas, for the S > 80% domain the increase in relative permeability is very significant [32].
3. 3D Printing for Construction
4. Research Vision
5. Proposed Theory-Based Approach for 3D Printing Process in Construction
- Step 1: Selection of sustainability indicators adapted with additive manufacturing technology (layer-by-layer deposition), such as porosity and sorption, and desorption isotherms.
- Step 2: Experimental campaign according to the procedures defined in this report, in the various standards, and from previous projects; e.g., the characterization of samples taken during the various printing tests.
- Step 3: Determination of the different sustainability indicators using existing correlations and empirical models. The objective is to study the impact of composition and implementation parameters on sustainability.
- Step 4: Prediction of the lifespan of the materials studied and presentation of recommendations for improving formulation and implementation.
6. Research Methodology
6.1. Materials
- Campaign 1: MC14-10-16,
- Campaign 2: MCR19-01-17,
- Campaign 3: MCR20-01-17.
6.2. Accessible Porosity to Water
6.3. Water Absorption
- Mhumide: constant wet mass of the specimen after immersion
- Msèche: constant dry mass of the specimen after drying in the oven
6.4. Wet and Dry Volumetric Masses
6.5. Porosity
6.6. Compressive Strength
6.7. Sorption–Desorption Isotherms
7. Results and Discussion
7.1. Water Absorption
7.2. Compressive Strength
7.3. Sorption and Desorption Curves
7.4. Analysis and the Proposed Durability Approach for 3D-Printed Materials
7.5. Central Role of Rheology as an Indicator
7.5.1. Pumpability Indicator
7.5.2. Shape Stability
7.6. Anisotropy of 3D-Printed Construction Materials
7.7. Methods to Mitigate the Shear Stress Generated by the Printing Process
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameters to be Determined | Method | Deadline for the Result | Duration of the Test | Precision | Cost Evaluation | Observation | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
General durability indicators | Water porosity | Hydrostatic weighting | 15 days | 3.5 months | 1.5% | * | |
Apparent or effective chloride diffusion coefficient | Migration in a steady state | 15 days | 4 months | 15% of the average value | ** | ||
Migration in a non-stationary mode | 1 week | 3.5 months | 15% of the average value | ** | |||
Diffusion in a non-stationary mode | 3 months | 6 months | 15% of the average value | *** | |||
Gas permeability | CEMBUREAU | 45 days | 4.5 months | 30% of the average value | ** | Specific equipment | |
Permeability to liquid water | Pressurized water permeameter (NFP 18-855) | 15 days | 3.5 months | 1 order of magnitude | * | ||
CaOH2 content | ATG | 1 week | 3.5 months | 1.5% | ** | Specific equipment | |
Chemical analysis | 1 week | 3.5 months | 2% | * | |||
Parameters required for the application of indirect methods | Characteristics of the porous structure | Mercury intrusion measurements | 15 days | 3.5 months | 1.5% | ** | Specific equipment |
Electrical resistivity | [ANDR01] | 1 week | 3.5 months | 10% of the average value | * | ||
Isotherms of water vapor sorption | Methods of saturated saline solutions (LPC n°58) | 6 months | 9 months | 10% of the average value | *** | ||
Isotherms of interaction matrix–chlorides | Ex. Immersion | 2 months | 5 months | 10% of the average value | ** | ||
Alkali reaction–Specific indicators | Quantity of silica released by aggregates as a function of time | Cinetic test NFP 18-589 or modified cinetic test NFP 18-594 | 1 week | 1 to 2 weeks | 10% of the average value | ** | |
Balance of the alkalis in the concrete formula | LPC n°17 and 48 | 1 week | 1 week | 0.1 | ** | ||
Swelling deformation | Project NFP 18-454 | 5 months | 5 months | ±20 (µm/m) | *** |
Durability indicators | MC14-10-16 | MCL19-01-17 | MCR20-01-17 |
---|---|---|---|
Compressive strength (%) | 39,67 | 29 | 11,35 |
Water absorption (%) | 5,9 | 6,7 | 8,2 |
Accessible Porosity to water (%) | 12,8 | 14,6 | 17,5 |
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Lafhaj, Z.; Dakhli, Z. Performance Indicators of Printed Construction Materials: a Durability-Based Approach. Buildings 2019, 9, 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings9040097
Lafhaj Z, Dakhli Z. Performance Indicators of Printed Construction Materials: a Durability-Based Approach. Buildings. 2019; 9(4):97. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings9040097
Chicago/Turabian StyleLafhaj, Zoubeir, and Zakaria Dakhli. 2019. "Performance Indicators of Printed Construction Materials: a Durability-Based Approach" Buildings 9, no. 4: 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings9040097