Ornamentation and Islamic Identity in Contemporary European Mosques: An Analysis of Cultural, Aesthetic, and Functional Dimensions and Modern Influences

Abstract

Islamic ornamentation is important to mosque architecture, reflecting Islamic culture’s rich traditions and artistry. In contemporary European mosques, the challenge lies in combining these traditional styles with modern architectural designs, creating spaces that honor heritage and foster inclusivity among varied Muslim communities. These challenges impact mosque design’s cultural, esthetic, and functional dimensions, essential for sustaining Islamic identity. To explore how these factors influence cultural architectural expressions, this study examines ornamentation in four contemporary European mosques: Cologne Central Mosque (Germany), Cambridge Central Mosque (United Kingdom), Al-Ándalus Mosque (Spain), and Rijeka Mosque (Croatia). It evaluates their impact on cultural heritage, esthetic appeal, functionality, and Islamic identity within the context of modern architectural styles through a comparative analysis. The results demonstrate adaptations to local contexts and modern trends. Al-Ándalus Mosque reveals a strong identity by preserving traditional heritage, while Cologne and Cambridge Mosques balance tradition and modernity. Rijeka Mosque, heavily influenced by minimalism, reduces cultural richness despite a contemporary approach. Modern innovations like sustainable materials enhance functionality but sometimes dilute Islamic identity. The study concludes that integrating traditional elements with modern esthetics and functionality is essential to aligning mosque design with contemporary styles, while preserving Islamic identity and fostering a sense of belonging within Muslim communities in Europe.

1. Introduction

Mosques have long served as central spaces for Islamic worship, education, and community interaction. Beyond their functional role, they embody the artistic and cultural values of the societies that build them. Ornamentation in mosque architecture, in particular, has historically played a crucial role in reflecting the cultural identity and artistic traditions of Islamic societies [1]. Ornamental designs like geometric patterns, floral patterns, and calligraphy serve as visual manifestations of Islamic principles and cultural traditions [2]. Several studies have explored the significance of ornamentation in mosque design, focusing on its role in creating spaces that resonate deeply with worshipers and reflect their cultural identity. For instance, Al Khalifa [3] highlights the role of sensory engagement—through elements like light, textures, spatial design, and ornaments—in fostering a profound spiritual connection within mosque environments. Likewise, Saberi et al. [4] underscore how ornamental elements like calligraphy and floral motifs not only serve esthetic purposes but also convey sacred meanings and strengthen the Islamic identity of mosques. Furthermore, Zahra and Shahir [5] point out that incorporating Islamic calligraphy and ornamentation into mosque design reinforces spirituality and maintains cultural identity while also contributing to the visual appeal. These insights underscore the importance of ornamentation in shaping meaningful and inclusive architectural spaces.

In contemporary European contexts, where diverse Islamic communities coexist, mosque architecture and ornamentation pose an exceptional challenge: conserving the Islamic legacy while responding to the multicultural environments in which these mosques are located [6]. Moreover, mosque ornamentation in diaspora settings usually integrates elements from several Islamic traditions, such as Ottoman, Andalusian, or Persian styles. According to the existing research, these contexts demand adjustments in architectural practices to meet social and cultural plurality while preserving Islamic values [6]. This has resulted in a variety of approaches to mosque ornamentation, making it an important topic for architectural research.

In recent years, mosque architecture has increasingly adopted modern design principles, such as minimalism, resulting in a noticeable reduction in traditional Islamic elements, including ornamentation [7,8]. As a result, this trend may weaken the distinct cultural character inherent in these spaces. For Muslims living in Europe, mosques are not just places of worship but also significant cultural landmarks and social spaces that provide a sense of belonging regarding their heritage and origins [9]. When Islamic architectural aspects, particularly ornamental details, are reduced, these spaces might feel detached from the cultural roots they are meant to reflect, affecting the sense of belonging that is needed in these communities [1,10]. Moreover, the ornamentation in contemporary mosques serves as a visual narrative of Islamic identity and cultural heritage, reflecting influences from diverse Islamic cultures [11].

While substantial research has focused on historical ornamentation and broad architectural forms, the cultural, esthetic, and functional roles of ornamentation in contemporary European mosques remain insufficiently explored. There is a need for a further examination of how these elements reflect Islamic heritage, specifically their diverse cultural influences (e.g., Ottoman, Andalusian, Persian), and how they balance tradition and modernity in mosque architecture. This study addresses these gaps through an examination of contemporary ornamentation in European mosque design.

By understanding how ornamentation is preserved, adapted, or innovatively combined in European contexts, this study highlights ornamentation’s role as a bridge between heritage and modernity, fostering inclusive and meaningful worship spaces for diverse Muslim communities in diaspora settings. This study will also provide architects and designers with valuable insights and practical guidelines for future mosque designs that respect Islamic heritage while engaging with modern architectural trends. Furthermore, this research is a timely inquiry into the ongoing debates about integrating modern and technological techniques in architectural design while achieving a delicate balance between tradition and modernity in Islamic architecture [12].

This study aims to examine the application of Islamic ornamentation in contemporary mosque designs, focusing on how diverse influences from Islamic cultures, esthetic choices, and functional requirements contribute to the architectural expression of these mosques. Additionally, the research seeks to highlight the significance of ornamentation in enhancing the Islamic identity of mosques, especially in response to the growing prevalence of modern minimalist designs that emphasize simplicity and limit ornamental elements. To achieve these aims, three objectives will guide the analysis:

• Analyze the cultural, esthetic, and functional dimensions of ornamentation in contemporary European mosques.
• Investigate the influence of modern architectural styles on mosque ornamentation.
• Evaluate the influence of contemporary ornamentation on the Islamic identity of mosques.

These objectives seek to answer the following research question: how do cultural, esthetic, functional, and modern influences shape ornamentation in contemporary European mosques, and what is their impact on Islamic identity? To address this question, this study employs a qualitative methodology using a case study strategy, analyzing four contemporary mosques from different European regions.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Historical Background

The evolution of mosque architecture in Europe has been deeply influenced by the historical, cultural, and religious experiences of Muslim communities. Traditional Islamic architecture—defined by features such as geometric patterns, calligraphy, and intricate designs—has served as a foundation for contemporary interpretations. Over time, mosque designs have shifted from region-specific adaptations to modern forms that reflect the globalized identities of Muslim communities.

Islamic architecture first emerged in Europe during the period of an Islamic presence in Al-Andalus. Iconic structures like the Great Mosque of Córdoba exemplify how Islamic principles were seamlessly integrated with local European architectural styles [13]. This fusion set a precedent for architectural adaptability that resurfaced in later centuries. During the Ottoman era, mosque design developed further to feature massive domes, spacious courtyards, and complicated ornaments, evident in the work of prominent architects such as Sinan. Mustafa and Hassan [14] argue that Ottoman architectural improvements had a significant impact on mosque design and esthetics, efficiently combining ancient Islamic precepts with modern artistic approaches.

Modern mosque architecture in Europe reflects the shifting cultural and social fabric caused by increasing multiculturalism and urbanization. As Muslim communities expanded throughout Europe in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, mosque designs began to incorporate traditional and contemporary aspects to meet the demands of multicultural societies [10]. Cambridge Mosque in the United Kingdom is a noteworthy example as it blends eco-friendly technologies with traditional Islamic motifs, demonstrating the inventive potential of modern mosque architecture [15].

Some architects have employed a minimalist design approach to mosque architecture, promoting simplicity and practicality to align with current urban esthetics [7]. These designs generally eliminate conventional elements like minarets and domes, concentrating instead on functionality and social spaces [16]. This trend is a response to modern esthetic preferences as well as the societal considerations of multicultural Europe, as Farrag [17] explains. Despite these advancements, several modern mosques maintain a connection with their architectural heritage, emphasizing elements like light and space [18]. These timeless features guarantee that while mosque architecture evolves, it stays profoundly attached to Islamic art traditions.

So, the historical development of mosque design in Europe, characterized by adaptability and creative synthesis, lays the groundwork for investigating the diverse ornamentation practices across Islamic cultures. This diversity has profoundly shaped the architectural character of mosques, stressing the significance of comprehending these varied influences.

2.2. Diversity of Ornamentation Across Islamic Cultures

Islamic mosque ornamentation takes several forms, including geometric patterns, arabesques, calligraphy, and vegetal motifs, all based on harmony and balance [19,20]. These decorative elements are more than just ornamental; they represent religious beliefs and cultural identity, linking worshipers to Islamic traditions through their esthetic appeal and symbolism [5]. Such elements are often composed of materials like tiles, stucco, wood, and stone, which add to the structural and esthetic coherence of Islamic architecture [20]. This flexibility in the application of different materials and techniques has allowed designers to blend local motifs into a cohesive architectural language [21,22].

Mosque ornamentation exemplifies a unique interaction of regional, cultural, and functional influences from throughout the Islamic world, resulting in a heritage that is unified in its spiritual essence yet diverse in its artistic expression [19,23]. In other words, the stylistic diversity of mosque ornamentation reflects the distinct histories and geographic contexts of various Islamic cultures. For example, Middle Eastern mosques, particularly in Iran, are celebrated for their masterful tilework and refined calligraphy. According to Blair and Bloom [24], the Safavid mosques of Isfahan, such as the Shah Mosque, are distinguished by their vibrant mosaics, featuring arabesque patterns and Quranic inscriptions that highlight the region’s enduring ceramic traditions and the Islamic reverence for the written word.

In contrast, Ettinghausen et al. [20] explain that mosques in North Africa and Andalusia showcase stucco reliefs, intricate wood carvings, and geometric motifs. The Great Mosque of Cordoba, with its iconic arches and elaborate carvings, exemplifies a harmonious fusion of Andalusian artistry and Islamic principles. In Southeast Asia, mosques in Malaysia and Indonesia often integrate floral motifs and delicate woodwork, drawing on indigenous flora and artistic traditions [25,26]. Similarly, Koch [27] highlights the grandeur of Mughal architecture in South Asia, as seen in structures like the Jama Masjid in Delhi, where marble inlays, floral ornamentation, and pietra dura techniques reflect an unparalleled emphasis on esthetic refinement and craftsmanship.

This ornamental variation is driven by cultural, esthetic, and practical considerations. Ornamentation is a vital cultural manifestation that reflects local identity and historical continuity. For example, the great use of calligraphy in Middle Eastern mosques reflects the centrality of the Quran [24], whereas Southeast Asian mosques use indigenous creative traditions to provide a harmonic mix of Islamic and local cultural influences [28]. Though Islamic art makes harmony, balance, and unity the top priority, esthetic principles are equally crucial. Geometric patterns are common in Islamic cultures and provide esthetically pleasing compositions. Persian tilework, with its elaborate patterns and complementary forms, clearly embodies these artistic ideas and esthetic concepts, bringing spiritual serenity and visual refinement to mosques [29,30]. In addition to their cultural and esthetic qualities, ornamentation elements also serve practical purposes. Mashrabiya, for instance, a popular feature in Islamic architecture, allows for light and ventilation while maintaining privacy [31]. Furthermore, the precise implementation of ornamental components enhances the structural integrity of a mosque, illustrating how ornamentation seamlessly blends form and function [20].

So, the enduring value of and great attention to Islamic ornamentation stem from its capacity to integrate local creative traditions with cultural, esthetic, and practical needs. Essentially, mosque ornamentation embodies Islam’s principles while showcasing its rich cultural diversity. This approach guarantees that Islamic architecture fulfills its fundamental role in serving and supporting Muslim communities by representing Islamic values and beliefs, integrating functionality, and reflecting the distinct cultural landscapes of the Islamic world [1].

2.3. Contemporary Ornamentation in European Mosques

Ornamentation in contemporary European mosques combines tradition and modernity, reflecting both Islamic heritage and innovative design practices. Modern materials and techniques have played an integral role in this evolution. In particular, perforated metal panels and engineered wood have recently been utilized to recreate traditional Islamic motifs in a way that meets both modern esthetic and environmental constraints [32,33,34]. As Azari et al. [35] point out, the incorporation of computer-aided design (CAD) with laser cutting techniques has enabled architects and designers to achieve higher accuracy in producing intricate geometric patterns. This approach not only assures precision but also allows for material flexibility, emphasizing the confluence of technology and ancient workmanship.

The transformation of traditional Islamic geometric patterns and calligraphy is another substantial feature of contemporary mosque ornamentation. Designers usually modify these ornamental elements to align with minimalist esthetics while maintaining the meaning they convey. For example, several contemporary mosques feature abstract geometric designs in their interiors, effectively merging traditional Islamic art with the principles of modern architecture [34,36]. Similarly, calligraphy, historically a distinctive and prominent element of Islamic architecture, has been modernized to match current designs. Khajavi [37] highlights the incorporation of digital calligraphy techniques, such as LED-lit Quranic verses, which produce a dynamic interaction between light and text that appeals to contemporary tastes. The fusion of form and function extends to the integration of calligraphy within geometric patterns. This is clearly evident in the sophisticated blending of calligraphic components with geometric patterns, a technique extensively explored in various Islamic structures, indicating a deep connection between spiritual identity and architectural innovation [38,39,40]. Additionally, eco-friendly elements like green roofs and solar panels show how modern ornamentation merges esthetics with sustainability, strengthening the mosque’s dual purpose as a community hub [15,41,42].

Furthermore, minimalist design principles have become a dominant influence in European architecture. These principles have notably influenced mosque ornamentation, leading to a reduction in traditional decorative elements like arabesques and geometric patterns [7,43]. Ahmed and Fethi [7] note that modern architectural styles have significantly influenced mosque design, with 14% of mosques experiencing structural obstructions, 23% seeing a reduction in symbolic elements, and 43% adopting simpler designs with fewer decorative features. According to [44], while minimalism promotes simplicity, functionality, and sustainability, it often leads to plain finishes and a reduction in or the simplification of traditional mosque features such as geometric patterns, domes, and minarets. This raises the possibility that such design trends could potentially weaken the connection of worshipers with their cultural heritage, thus impacting the symbolic and communal roles of mosques. This scenario underscores the critical need to harmonize contemporary design trends with Muslim communities’ cultural, functional, and esthetic requirements to ensure that mosques continue serving as effective and meaningful spaces.

2.4. Literature Gaps

The review of the literature revealed a significant gap in understanding how ornamental elements convey cultural, functional, and esthetic motifs. While existing studies acknowledge these aspects, they often neglect the esthetic and functional roles of ornamentation, focusing instead on cultural implications. Moreover, discussions on cultural aspects rarely address how contemporary mosque ornamentation integrates specific influences from diverse traditions such as Ottoman, Andalusian, and Persian styles. Furthermore, a limited amount of recent research has studied how ornamentation in contemporary European mosques, shaped by modern architectural styles, influences Islamic identity and the sense of belonging it fosters among Muslim communities [2,6,7,8]. As a result, there is a lack of a comprehensive understanding of how these ornamental elements function not only as reflections of Islamic heritage but also as practical and esthetic contributions to modern mosque architecture. The crucial role of these decorative elements in creating meaningful and welcoming spaces calls for a more integrated study. This research aims to fill this gap by examining how the interplay of cultural, esthetic, and functional influences, along with modern architectural styles, shapes the ornamentation of European mosques, thus shedding light on the evolving identity of mosque architecture within a multicultural European context.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Conceptual Framework

This study employed a conceptual framework developed from the literature to analyze the ornamentation elements in contemporary European mosques. The framework comprised the following three key aspects:

• Cultural dimension: This dimension focused on exploring how the ornamentation in contemporary European mosques reflects influences from different Islamic cultures. It also focused on exploring the differences in elements like geometric patterns, calligraphy, domes, and Mihrab designs across mosques in different European countries, drawing inspiration from Islamic regions such as those connected to the Ottoman, Andalusian, and Persian traditions. By connecting these elements with modern architectural styles, the analysis showed how cultural diversity is conserved, adapted, or modified in response to contemporary design trends and the context of Islamic communities in Europe.
• Esthetic dimension: This dimension focused on the visual qualities of mosque ornamentation, highlighting design forms like geometric, floral, abstract, or other designs. It also focused on exploring how these elements reflect the esthetic preferences related to different Islamic cultures, as well as investigating how modern styles like minimalism and technological advancements influence these visual expressions. This helped to assess how the esthetics of Islamic ornamentation have evolved in contemporary European contexts.
• Functional dimension: This dimension focused on the practical roles that ornamentation plays in the architecture of contemporary European mosques. It also focused on exploring how ornamental elements, such as geometric patterns and calligraphy, serve functional purposes, as well as how these designs, rooted in Islamic traditions, are altered or reinterpreted in response to current architectural techniques. Thus, it highlighted how contemporary ornamentation improves the usability and inclusivity of mosque spaces while preserving their connection to an Islamic identity.

The examination of these dimensions allowed for an exploration of how modern architectural styles—including advanced techniques, innovative materials, technological advancements, and minimalist design—influence ornamentation and impact the expression of Islamic identity in contemporary European contexts. Thus, this integrated framework ensured that the analysis not only examined ornamentation in isolation but also connected it to broader themes of modernity and Islamic identity. Through this lens, this study highlights the dynamic interplay between tradition and modernity in shaping mosque architecture today. The framework systematically explored the interconnections among cultural, esthetic, and functional dimensions, analyzing how each interacts with modern architectural styles. This dynamic relationship shapes the design and application of ornamentation and contributes significantly to reinforcing the overarching Islamic identity of European mosques. Accordingly, the study was guided by the following parameters, which shaped the comparative analysis (see Figure 1):

• Cultural diversity;
• Esthetic preferences;
• Functional considerations;
• The influence of modern styles;
• The impact on mosques’ identity.

3.2. Research Methodology

This study adopted a qualitative methodology using a case study strategy, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of ornamentation elements. Employing a purposive sampling approach, four mosques were selected from different regions of Europe to ensure geographical diversity, cultural significance, and architectural variety. The selection spanned Central, northern, southern, and Eastern Europe, providing a broad representation of how regional contexts influence mosque architecture. The selection criteria prioritized contemporary mosques that not only demonstrated a broad geographical distribution and architectural diversity but also reflected the enduring influence of Islamic civilizations—such as Ottoman, Andalusian, and other civilizations—within the European context. These case studies were also chosen for their integration of modern architectural styles, materials, and construction techniques. Additionally, each case was selected based on the availability of clear, publicly accessible, and properly licensed photographic documentation. These images clearly illustrate the architectural ornamentation elements incorporated into each mosque’s design. This ensured that visual references could be ethically used in the comparative analysis. The number of case studies was determined based on the need to balance geographical and cultural diversity with the depth of comparative analysis feasible within the scope of this study and the available timeframe. The four selected cases were as follows:

• Cologne Central Mosque (Germany—Central Europe): This mosque blends Ottoman-inspired elements with modern European styles, reflecting Ottoman architectural traditions through features such as traditional calligraphy and geometric ornamentation, combined with contemporary materials like grid-patterned glass. This fusion is shaped in part by the strong presence of the Turkish community in Germany, which represents the country’s largest immigrant population [45]. Their strong cultural roots have played a key role in shaping the mosque’s design, allowing Ottoman stylistic elements to be meaningfully reinterpreted in a contemporary European setting [46,47,48].
• Cambridge Central Mosque (United Kingdom—Northern Europe): This mosque features a unique integration of Islamic architectural heritage and modern environmental design. The mosque incorporates traditional ornamentation, such as geometric patterns and timber latticework, within a highly sustainable and technologically advanced structure. Cambridge Central Mosque, often referred to as the “Eco-Mosque,” stands as a prime example of how sustainable practices can be seamlessly integrated into modern Islamic architecture [49]. This case offers a valuable opportunity to study how Islamic identity can be preserved and enhanced through eco-conscious architectural innovation.
• Al-Ándalus Mosque (Spain—Southern Europe): Given the historical influence of Andalusian architectural styles on Islamic architecture in Spain [50], the Al-Ándalus Mosque was selected as a compelling case study to explore this ongoing legacy. The mosque embodies the enduring presence of Andalusian Islamic civilization by reinterpreting traditional elements such as horseshoe arches, zellij tilework, muqarnas, and intricate floral motifs within a modern architectural context. These features maintain a visible link to Andalusian heritage and offer a means to explore how historical Islamic identities are sustained in contemporary settings.
• Rijeka Mosque (Croatia—Eastern Europe): As noted by [51], cities with large Bosniak communities, like Rijeka, have developed modern Islamic centers that embrace diverse architectural styles, from Ottoman-inspired interpretations to minimalist, abstract expressions. Rijeka Mosque exemplifies the latter through its starkly minimalist design, characterized by clean lines, panoramic windows, and sculptural domes. It stands in contrast to the other selected cases, as it lacks extensive traditional ornamentation. This makes it a valuable case for examining how minimalism and contemporary esthetics affect the visual and symbolic expression of Islamic identity in European contexts.

These prominent examples of contemporary European mosques offered an opportunity to examine the influence of modern architectural styles on ornamentation and their broader implications for the Islamic identity of the mosques. Together, these case studies provided a solid platform for investigating how ornamentation responds to various cultural settings and current architectural forms, therefore contributing to Islamic identity and a sense of belonging among distinct Muslim communities. Each case study was visually analyzed using four selected photographs per mosque. To ensure consistency and facilitate a fair comparative analysis, the selection aimed to include the same typology of images across all cases, specifically, one photograph for each of the following elements: the Mihrab, the main interior prayer space, the exterior facade, and the dome. This approach enabled a systematic examination of ornamentation elements across comparable architectural components in the selected mosques. So, the selection criteria for the photographs ensured that the chosen images showcased architectural elements relevant to this study’s focus. However, the availability of freely licensed images varied between cases. In such instances, the most relevant and high-quality images were selected based on their ability to illustrate ornamentation while strictly adhering to open-access research ethics. To strengthen the credibility of the visual data, the selected photographs were reviewed and validated by an expert in Islamic architecture with substantial experience in the field. The expert confirmed that the images clearly captured the key architectural features of each mosque, ensuring their suitability for accurate analysis and meaningful comparisons. The collected data were then organized into analytical tables aligned with the conceptual framework, enabling a structured interpretation of the ornamentation elements. Similar comparative studies—such as studies by Ahmed and Fethi [7], who examined contemporary mosques in Sulaymaniyah, and Al-Tamimi and Pankina [52], who investigated the integration of traditional and modern elements in Islamic design—demonstrate the validity of this approach. So, by applying this methodology, the research contributed to fulfilling the objectives and providing a clear, comprehensive response to the research question.

4. Results

4.1. Case Study 1: Cologne Central Mosque (Germany)

Cologne Central Mosque is one of the most prominent contemporary mosques in Europe, blending modern architectural styles with traditional Islamic motifs (Figure 2). It serves as a cultural and religious hub for the Muslim community in Cologne.

The data collected for this case study were analyzed and are presented in

Table 1. Analysis of ornamentation elements in Cologne Central Mosque (Germany).

Element	Location	Cultural Dimension	Esthetic Dimension	Functional Dimension	Influence of Modern Styles	Impact on Mosque Identity
1. Geometric Latticework	Interior: Walls and ceiling of the main prayer hall	Inspired by Mamluk and Persian cultures, reflecting their rich tradition of geometric complexity and mathematical precision.	The intricate patterns on the walls and ceiling enhance the mosque’s visual appeal, fostering a serene and contemplative atmosphere.	Regulates acoustics by reducing echoes and improving sound clarity during prayers.	Combines traditional Mamluk and Persian lattice design with precise modern techniques, using durable materials to enhance functionality.	Establishes a strong connection to historical Islamic art while making the space feel timelessly modern.
2. Geometric Facade	Exterior: Main walls	Rooted in neo-Ottoman traditions, the patterns reflect Islamic unity and balance.	Adds depth and texture to the exterior, creating a powerful visual identity for the mosque that is both bold and welcoming.	Connects the mosque to its surroundings, symbolizing openness and community integration.	Reinterprets Ottoman motifs using modern materials and construction techniques, emphasizing innovation.	Bridges Islamic cultural heritage and contemporary architecture, making the mosque a modern landmark.
3. Grid-Patterned Glasswork	Interior: Main prayer hall	Inspired by Islamic geometric principles, reflecting order and symmetry.	Enriches the prayer hall’s ambiance, reflects modern Islamic design, and fosters a sense of openness.	Provides light diffusion, ensures privacy, and complements the mosque’s structural design.	Integrates contemporary materials and minimalist esthetics, reinterpreting traditional Islamic patterns in a modern architectural context.	Enhances the mosque’s Islamic identity by modernizing traditional geometric patterns while preserving their cultural and symbolic significance.
4. Calligraphic Reliefs	Interior: Entrance walls	Inspired by Ottoman and Arabic calligraphy, featuring Quranic inscriptions that highlight the sacredness of the Quranic message.	The golden calligraphy, contrasting elegantly with the white geometric latticework, is both visually captivating and spiritually uplifting, creating a contemplative ambiance.	Serve as a visual reminder of faith, conveying the sacredness of the Quranic message while also educating visitors on the artistry of Islamic calligraphy.	Employ contemporary fonts and layouts, presenting a modern interpretation of traditional Islamic calligraphy.	Partially connect to traditional identity; modern typography slightly alters cultural depth.
5. Dome Decorations	Interior: Above the main prayer hall	Rooted in Ottoman traditions, these feature the iconic eight-pointed star, inspired by Islamic art, evoking a sense of luxury.	The dome’s patterns reflect sunlight and shadows on the walls, creating a serene and harmonious ambiance.	Enhance the interplay of light and shadow, create a visually dynamic atmosphere, and emphasize the architectural centrality of the mosque.	Combine traditional Islamic motifs with modern design techniques, using contemporary materials to reinterpret classical patterns in an innovative way.	Strengthen the mosque’s Islamic identity by preserving cultural symbolism, while their modern execution bridges tradition and contemporary design.
6. Mihrab Ornamentation	Interior: Qibla wall	Blends traditional Islamic artistry with modern design.	Features elegant calligraphy and gold-colored stucco panels, enriching the spiritual ambiance of the prayer space.	Marks the direction of prayer, ensures spatial orientation, and serves as a visually inspiring focal point.	Reflects modern influences through its minimalist design, streamlined calligraphy, and contemporary use of gold-colored stucco panels.	Enriches the mosque’s Islamic identity by merging tradition with modern design, preserving its symbolic essence.

.

4.2. Case Study 2: Cambridge Central Mosque (United Kingdom)

Cambridge Central Mosque is a leading example of sustainable mosque architecture, combining eco-friendly technologies with Islamic design principles (Figure 3). It serves as a religious and cultural landmark for the Muslim community in Cambridge.

The data collected for this case study were analyzed and are presented in

Table 2. Analysis of ornamentation elements in Cambridge Central Mosque (United Kingdom).

Element	Location	Cultural Dimension	Esthetic Dimension	Functional Dimension	Influence of Modern Styles	Impact on Mosque Identity
1. Kufic Brickwork	Exterior: Facade walls	Inspired by Persian and early Islamic architecture, incorporating Kufic script for cultural connection.	Intricate Kufic calligraphy patterns add texture, depth, and artistic value to the facade.	Improves thermal performance and educates visitors on Islamic art and calligraphy.	Uses sustainable brickwork with Kufic motifs for energy efficiency and cultural identity.	Reinforces Islamic identity through sustainable reinterpretation of tradition.
2. Timber Latticework	Interior: Intersection of columns and ceiling	Inspired by Islamic geometric principles and local British craftsmanship.	Intersecting timber beams form net-like patterns on the ceiling, creating a harmonious interior.	Supports the roof structure while creating a sense of enclosure and visual rhythm.	Combines Islamic geometry with advanced timber engineering, integrating skylights atop timber ’tree’ columns for natural light.	The visual focus might shift toward innovation over heritage.
3. Calligraphic Panels	Interior: Prayer area walls	Draw from Ottoman and Arabic traditions, featuring Quranic verses.	Modern calligraphy enhances the sacred ambiance and adds visual depth.	Provide visual guidance for worshipers and emphasize the sanctity of the prayer space.	Reinterpret classical calligraphy using contemporary typography.	Partly reflect tradition, but modern typography reduces cultural depth.
4. Dome’s Geometric Ornamentation	Exterior: Above the prayer hall	Blends Islamic geometric traditions with a contemporary context, reflecting the fusion of Islamic and local cultural influences.	Harmonizes with its surroundings through geometric forms and natural tones, reflecting nearby architectural rhythms.	Acts as a visual landmark, aiding orientation and reinforcing its presence as a cultural and religious center.	The gilded dome blends Islamic tradition with modern design, offering a contemporary interpretation.	Reinforces the mosque’s Islamic identity by balancing traditional symbolism with modern minimalist esthetics.
5. Dome’s Light Perforations	Interior: Around the periphery of the dome	Inspired by Ottoman and Mughal skylights, with perforations reflecting Islamic patterns.	Create abstract patterns of light and shadow that enhance the spatial ambiance.	Improve natural light and ambiance during prayer times, reduce glare, and enhance the dome’s role.	Integrate advanced lighting design to reinterpret traditional perforations.	Boost ambiance but emphasize modern spatial effects over Islamic identity.
6. Flooring Patterns	Interior: Atrium floor	Inspired by traditional Islamic geometry, with octagonal patterns reflecting cultural heritage and harmony.	Enhance visual appeal with intricate octagonal designs, merging tradition with modern elegance.	Guide visitors and define spatial boundaries, aiding the flow between the entrance and prayer halls.	Reflect modernity with precise geometry and contemporary materials, reinterpreting tradition.	Strengthen the mosque’s identity by merging Islamic geometry with modern execution.
7. Mihrab Ornamentation	Interior: Qibla wall within the main prayer hall	Blends Persian and Andalusian architectural traditions with modern Islamic art.	Geometric patterns and calligraphic tiles form a detailed focal point, defining the sacred space.	Provides an acoustic and visual focus for the congregation, connecting them to the imam.	Merges traditional elements with contemporary design for enhanced functionality.	Establishes a strong Islamic identity as an architectural and spiritual focal point.

.

4.3. Case Study 3: Al-Ándalus Mosque (Spain)

Al-Ándalus Mosque draws inspiration from Andalusian Islamic heritage while incorporating modern design adaptations (Figure 4). It serves as a cultural and spiritual center for the Muslim community in southern Spain.

The data collected for this case study were analyzed and are presented in

Table 3. Analysis of ornamentation elements in Al-Ándalus Mosque (Spain).

Element	Location	Cultural Dimension	Esthetic Dimension	Functional Dimension	Influence of Modern Styles	Impact on Mosque Identity
1. Horseshoe Arches	Interior: Prayer Hall	Reflect the Andalusian architectural style, symbolizing the historical Islamic presence in Spain.	Elegant curves enhance the visual appeal, creating a sense of grandeur and continuity.	Define spatial divisions and guide movement within the mosque.	Integrate traditional forms with contemporary construction techniques.	Strengthen the mosque’s identity by connecting it to Spain’s Islamic heritage.
2. Geometric Tilework (Zellij)	Interior: Walls of the Prayer Hall	Embodies Islamic traditions, highlighting the role of geometry and abstraction.	Intricate patterns provide visual complexity and rhythm, enhancing the interior’s beauty.	Protects surfaces while serving as decoration, insulation, and a reflection of cultural craftsmanship.	Utilizes traditional designs with modern color schemes and materials.	Reinforces Islamic identity through the use of classic decorative arts.
3. Arabic Calligraphy	Interior and Exterior: Above Arches and Entrances	Features Quranic verses, highlighting the significance of the Arabic language in Islamic culture.	Enhances esthetic appeal while adding elegance and richness through detailed craftsmanship.	Conveys religious messages to worshipers, fostering and reinforcing their faith.	Integrates traditional calligraphic styles with modern typography.	Enhances the mosque’s identity by emphasizing the importance of the Quran.
4. Minbar Woodwork Ornamentation	Interior: Adjacent to Mihrab	Reflects Islamic Andalusian art, blending heritage and craftsmanship while emphasizing its sacred role.	Exhibits intricate woodwork, showcasing craftsmanship and attention to detail.	Enhances the Minbar’s sacredness, reflects Andalusian heritage, and creates an inspiring focal point.	Incorporates traditional design with modern ergonomic considerations.	Reinforces the mosque’s role as a center for Islamic teaching and community.
5. Floral and Vegetal Motifs	Interior: Decorative Panels and Ceilings	Symbolize the Islamic appreciation for nature and the representation of paradise.	Add organic beauty and softness to architectural elements.	Enhance the space with refined details, fostering tranquility and harmony.	Blend traditional motifs with contemporary artistic interpretations.	Strengthen the mosque’s identity by connecting it to Islamic artistic heritage.
6. Ribbed Domes	Exterior: Above the Prayer Hall and Mihrab	Demonstrate the ingenuity of Islamic architectural engineering in Al-Andalus, reflecting the sophistication of Muslim Spain.	The interlacing ribs create intricate patterns, enhancing the visual complexity and beauty of the mosque’s facade.	Provide structural support while allowing for expansive, open interior spaces.	Integrate traditional Islamic dome construction with the innovative design techniques of the period.	Highlight the mosque’s architectural prominence and connection to the legacy of Al-Andalus.
7. Ornamental Facades	Exterior: Main Entrances and Walls	Showcase Islamic facade art, emphasizing symmetry and intricate details of Al-Andalus architecture.	Elaborate carvings and patterns enhance the mosque’s beauty, marking it as an artistic landmark.	Serve to impress and welcome worshipers and visitors, reflecting the mosque’s significance in the community.	Blend Andalusian traditions with modern designs, techniques, and durable materials.	Strengthen Islamic identity by preserving Al-Andalus’s artistic legacy, symbolizing Islamic heritage in Spain.
8. Mihrab Ornamentation	Interior: Prayer Niche	Features a traditional Andalusian horseshoe arch and geometric motifs, reflecting the Islamic heritage of Al-Andalus.	Intricate patterns and vibrant colors create a visually striking focal point, enhancing the mosque’s spiritual ambiance.	Marks the Qibla direction, amplifies the imam’s voice during prayers, and provides a visual focus for the congregation.	Integrates classical Islamic designs with modern construction techniques to ensure durability.	Reinforces Islamic identity by preserving the Andalusian architectural heritage.

.

4.4. Case Study 4: Rijeka Mosque (Croatia)

Rijeka Mosque is a modern religious structure embracing minimalist design principles while subtly incorporating Islamic traditions (Figure 5). It serves as a cultural and religious center for the Muslim community in Rijeka.

The data collected for this case study were analyzed and are presented in

Table 4. Analysis of ornamentation elements in Rijeka Mosque (Croatia).

Element	Location	Cultural Dimension	Esthetic Dimension	Functional Dimension	Influence of Modern Styles	Impact on Mosque Identity
1. Sculptural Domes	Exterior: Roof Structure	Inspired by Ottoman domes, symbolizing the unity of the Muslim community, and reinterpreted in a modern sculptural form.	The interlocking domes create a dynamic, harmonious effect, enhancing the mosque’s skyline.	Provide structural coverage for the prayer hall, facilitating natural light and acoustics.	Modern materials like stainless steel plates provide a futuristic look while retaining traditional symbolism.	Establish the mosque as a modern Islamic landmark in Europe, blending tradition and innovation.
2. Spiral Minaret	Exterior: Adjacent to the Main Structure	Represents a modern interpretation of the traditional minaret.	Its refined, spiraling design adds a contemporary esthetic, contributing to the mosque’s distinctive form.	Serves as a visual focal point, creates a sense of movement and dynamism, and adds uniqueness to the mosque’s overall design.	Incorporates modern design principles and materials, departing from conventional minaret structures.	Highlights the mosque’s embracing of contemporary design while honoring Islamic architectural traditions.
3. Geometric Facade Patterns	Exterior: Outer Walls and Entrances	Embody Islamic art’s emphasis on geometry and abstraction, seamlessly merging tradition with modern innovation.	Enhance esthetic appeal through symmetry, abstraction, and light–shadow interplay, merging traditional Islamic art with modern elegance.	Serve as a visual representation of Islamic cultural heritage, enhancing the building’s identity without compromising structural integrity.	Blend traditional Islamic geometric art with modern construction and minimalist design.	Strengthen the cultural identity of the mosque by integrating recognizable Islamic artistic motifs in a contemporary context.
4. Panoramic Windows	Interior: Prayer Hall and Community Areas	Symbolize openness and connection, blending Islamic architectural values with a modern esthetic to reflect cultural inclusivity.	Enhance the interior’s ambiance, creating a welcoming and open atmosphere.	Improve energy efficiency by maximizing daylight and reducing the need for artificial lighting.	Reflect modern styles with expansive glass surfaces that maximize natural light and connect the interior to the surroundings.	Position the mosque as a community space, blending traditional practices with modern environmental considerations.

.

5. Discussion

The analysis of ornamentation in four contemporary European mosques—Cologne Central Mosque (Germany), Cambridge Central Mosque (UK), Al-Ándalus Mosque (Spain), and Rijeka Mosque (Croatia)—highlights the interplay of the cultural, esthetic, and functional factors that influence their architectural expressions. Across these cases, ornamentation reflects a balance between preserving Islamic traditions and embracing modern architectural trends, with varying degrees of influence.

Culturally, the ornamentation in these mosques adapts traditional Islamic elements, reinterpreting them to reflect the local context and influences. Cologne Central Mosque blends Mamluk, Persian, and Ottoman influences with modern materials, exemplified by its grid-patterned glasswork and calligraphic reliefs. Cambridge Central Mosque combines Islamic geometric standards with British workmanship, evident in its timber latticework and Kufic brickwork. Al-Ándalus Mosque honors Andalusian Islamic heritage with horseshoe arches, geometric tilework (zellij), and floral motifs, maintaining a strong link with a traditional identity. Rijeka Mosque adapts Ottoman traditions using sculptural domes and geometric facade designs that emphasize harmony, unity, and abstraction. These techniques show how ornamentation responds to cultural variety yet preserves Islamic identity. Nevertheless, some modern interpretations risk weakening their traditional cultural depth. This is consistent with the findings of Alokun et al. [1], who highlighted how ornamentation represents cultural identity and contributes to conserving artistic traditions in mosque architecture.

Esthetically, ornamentation enhances the visual and spiritual ambiance of these mosques. The geometric patterns used across all cases create a sense of harmony and contemplation, while calligraphy emphasizes the sacredness of Quranic teachings. Innovations such as perforated dome lighting in Cambridge and grid-patterned glass in Cologne successfully blend tradition with contemporary esthetics, enriching spatial dynamics. These findings resonate with those of Zahra and Shahir [5], who highlighted the spiritual and esthetic contributions of ornamentation in inspiring contemplative experiences. However, the minimalist design approach seen in Rijeka and parts of Cambridge may shift the visual focus towards innovation, partially overshadowing traditional Islamic heritage, as noted by Farrag [8] in discussions of minimalism’s impact on symbolic mosque elements.

Functionally, ornamentation in these mosques serves practical purposes, such as optimizing acoustics, improving energy efficiency, and facilitating movement. Acoustic benefits are clearly observed in Cologne’s geometric latticework and Al-Ándalus’s muqarnas. Sustainability is implemented in Cambridge’s brickwork and in Rijeka’s expansive windows, emphasizing the fundamental role of ornamentation in improving utility while retaining visual appearances. Thus, these functional aspects highlight how ornamentation plays a critical and versatile role in mosque design, which is compatible with the views of Danish et al. [41], who stressed the sustainable potential of design elements in mosques.

The impact of modern styles is noticeable to varying extents, with it being most prominent in Rijeka and Cambridge. Rijeka Mosque features a minimalist architectural approach, with its interior design largely devoid of traditional ornamentation and its reliance on clean lines, panoramic windows, and sculptural domes. This minimalist style contrasts starkly with the other mosques, where ornamentation plays a more prominent role in expressing Islamic identity. While this approach emphasizes simplicity and modernity, it considerably reduces the cultural depth associated with traditional Islamic ornamentation. The few ornamental elements in Rijeka, when compared to the richly adorned Al-Ándalus Mosque or the intricately designed Cologne Mosque, highlight the strong influence of minimalism on its identity. These insights correspond to the findings of Ahmed and Fethi [7], who indicated that minimalist tendencies have reduced the use of traditional Islamic motifs in modern mosque designs.

Cambridge Mosque incorporates modern techniques and materials, such as timber latticework with circular roof skylights and perforated dome lighting, creating a harmonious balance between innovation and tradition. While modern influences are present, they do not overpower the mosque’s Islamic identity. Similarly, Cologne Mosque combines contemporary materials like grid-patterned glass with traditional calligraphy and geometric motifs, resulting in a seamless fusion of old and new. On the other hand, Al-Ándalus Mosque is the least influenced by modern trends, preserving its Andalusian heritage with elements like horseshoe arches, muqarnas, and floral motifs. This approach strengthens its Islamic identity, grounding the design firmly in historical Islamic traditions.

As a result, the impact of modern styles on the Islamic character of these mosques is both beneficial and detrimental. On the positive side, modern innovations enhance functionality and increase the appeal of mosque architecture to contemporary audiences. For example, the integration of sustainable materials and energy-efficient designs in Cambridge and Rijeka reflects the adaptability of Islamic architecture to modern needs. This finding aligns with those of Danish et al. [41], who emphasize the role of sustainability in mosque design, and Ibrahim et al. [34], who highlight the integration of Islamic geometric patterns into energy-efficient solutions. However, on the negative side, an excessive emphasis on minimalism, as seen in Rijeka, risks diluting the cultural richness traditionally associated with Islamic ornamentation. Farrag [8] agrees with this argument, noting that minimalistic tendencies in mosque building might reduce mosques’ symbolic and cultural relevance. Rijeka’s mosque, with its minimalist interior and limited decorative features, is visually and culturally less tied to traditional Islamic architecture compared to the other cases.

The Islamic identity of these mosques is shaped by how effectively they balance traditional and modern influences. Al-Ándalus Mosque reflects a strong Islamic identity by retaining historic aspects without compromising. Likewise, the dome and Mihrab of Cologne Mosque create an elegant balance between tradition and modernity. Cambridge Mosque, despite its innovative features, retains a sense of cultural and spiritual depth. In contrast, the strong influence of minimalism in Rijeka Mosque diminishes its connection to traditional Islamic identity, highlighting the challenges modern design trends pose to sustaining cultural heritage. This aligns with the findings of Alokun et al. [1], who stress that ornamentation plays a vital role in maintaining cultural identity and creating a sense of belonging for Muslim communities. Zahra and Shahir [5] further note that Islamic ornamentation serves as both a cultural and spiritual bridge, connecting sacred traditions with modern functionality. Therefore, striking the right balance between a traditional identity and contemporary design is essential for preserving the Islamic essence of mosques, and emerging design tools offer new possibilities for achieving this integration [69]. In addition, ornamentation should not only enhance the visual appeal but must also act as a bridge linking the sacred traditions of the past with the practical and esthetic needs of today.

6. Conclusions and Recommendations

This study highlights the critical role of ornamentation in shaping the cultural, esthetic, and functional aspects of contemporary European mosques. Through an analysis of Cologne Central Mosque, Cambridge Central Mosque, Al-Ándalus Mosque, and Rijeka Mosque, it has become evident that ornamentation bridges Islamic traditions and modern architectural trends. Traditional elements, such as calligraphy, geometric patterns, and domes, continue to reinforce the cultural and spiritual depth. However, the influence of modern styles introduces innovative materials and techniques that enhance functionality and relevance, although excessive minimalism, as seen in Rijeka Mosque, risks diminishing the richness of traditional ornamentation and weakening the Islamic identity of these sacred spaces.

Future mosque designs should seek to harmonize tradition and modernity by integrating culturally significant elements with contemporary functionality. Ornamentation must reflect the richness of Islamic heritage, engage with local contexts, and resist an over-reliance on minimalism to sustain spiritual and cultural connections. This balance not only preserves the architectural identity of mosques but also reinforces their role as meaningful spaces that cultivate a profound sense of faith and cultural continuity for European Muslim communities.

This study proposes the following practical recommendations to support architects and designers working on future mosque projects in Europe:

• Architects should thoughtfully integrate traditional Islamic elements—such as calligraphy, geometric patterns, and domes—into current architectural forms. In the European setting, striking this balance will enable mosques both to express their profound cultural identity and meet the practical necessities of modern urban life.
• Contemporary materials and techniques should be used to reinterpret traditional Islamic ornamentation, ensuring designs remain rooted in their heritage while fitting seamlessly into modern European contexts. This will promote a stronger sense of belonging for Muslim communities within diverse societies and help in creating inclusive and welcoming spaces.
• Modern materials and technologies can be thoughtfully integrated to enhance Islamic identity in mosque design. Instead of replacing traditional ornamentation, these innovations can help highlight its esthetic and symbolic qualities. For instance, lighting can be used to cast intricate patterned shadows, while golden-toned steel may be incorporated to reinterpret traditional motifs within a contemporary architectural language.
• While minimalism is often appreciated in contemporary architecture for its clarity, efficiency, and contribution to sustainability, mosque design should adopt a balanced approach that avoids excessive simplification.
• Minimalism can be thoughtfully applied in certain areas within the mosque, while key elements such as the Mihrab and dome should retain meaningful ornamentation to preserve their spiritual depth and express an Islamic identity. Increasing ornamentation in appropriate areas strengthens their identity, whereas excessive reduction may risk diminishing it.
• In European contexts, the mosque’s exterior facade holds particular significance, as it serves as a visible symbol of an Islamic identity and presence within the public realm. Thus, incorporating ornamentation on the facade will not only enhance architectural expression but also strengthen the sense of belonging for Muslim communities living in the diaspora.
• In European mosques, ornamentation should improve the spiritual ambiance and user experience in addition to being esthetically pleasing. Designs should use light, materials, and symbolic details like calligraphy, patterns, and textures to create spaces that support worship and emotional comfort.

While this study focused on four European mosques due to time constraints, future research could expand to have a broader geographic scope, incorporate user perspectives on ornamentation, and examine the impact of emerging technologies. By addressing these dimensions, mosque architecture can continue to honor sacred traditions while innovatively responding to the evolving needs of diverse Muslim populations.