Ornamentation and Islamic Identity in Contemporary European Mosques: An Analysis of Cultural, Aesthetic, and Functional Dimensions and Modern Influences
Abstract
1. Introduction
- Analyze the cultural, esthetic, and functional dimensions of ornamentation in contemporary European mosques.
- Investigate the influence of modern architectural styles on mosque ornamentation.
- Evaluate the influence of contemporary ornamentation on the Islamic identity of mosques.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Historical Background
2.2. Diversity of Ornamentation Across Islamic Cultures
2.3. Contemporary Ornamentation in European Mosques
2.4. Literature Gaps
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Conceptual Framework
- Cultural dimension: This dimension focused on exploring how the ornamentation in contemporary European mosques reflects influences from different Islamic cultures. It also focused on exploring the differences in elements like geometric patterns, calligraphy, domes, and Mihrab designs across mosques in different European countries, drawing inspiration from Islamic regions such as those connected to the Ottoman, Andalusian, and Persian traditions. By connecting these elements with modern architectural styles, the analysis showed how cultural diversity is conserved, adapted, or modified in response to contemporary design trends and the context of Islamic communities in Europe.
- Esthetic dimension: This dimension focused on the visual qualities of mosque ornamentation, highlighting design forms like geometric, floral, abstract, or other designs. It also focused on exploring how these elements reflect the esthetic preferences related to different Islamic cultures, as well as investigating how modern styles like minimalism and technological advancements influence these visual expressions. This helped to assess how the esthetics of Islamic ornamentation have evolved in contemporary European contexts.
- Functional dimension: This dimension focused on the practical roles that ornamentation plays in the architecture of contemporary European mosques. It also focused on exploring how ornamental elements, such as geometric patterns and calligraphy, serve functional purposes, as well as how these designs, rooted in Islamic traditions, are altered or reinterpreted in response to current architectural techniques. Thus, it highlighted how contemporary ornamentation improves the usability and inclusivity of mosque spaces while preserving their connection to an Islamic identity.
- Cultural diversity;
- Esthetic preferences;
- Functional considerations;
- The influence of modern styles;
- The impact on mosques’ identity.
3.2. Research Methodology
- Cologne Central Mosque (Germany—Central Europe): This mosque blends Ottoman-inspired elements with modern European styles, reflecting Ottoman architectural traditions through features such as traditional calligraphy and geometric ornamentation, combined with contemporary materials like grid-patterned glass. This fusion is shaped in part by the strong presence of the Turkish community in Germany, which represents the country’s largest immigrant population [45]. Their strong cultural roots have played a key role in shaping the mosque’s design, allowing Ottoman stylistic elements to be meaningfully reinterpreted in a contemporary European setting [46,47,48].
- Cambridge Central Mosque (United Kingdom—Northern Europe): This mosque features a unique integration of Islamic architectural heritage and modern environmental design. The mosque incorporates traditional ornamentation, such as geometric patterns and timber latticework, within a highly sustainable and technologically advanced structure. Cambridge Central Mosque, often referred to as the “Eco-Mosque,” stands as a prime example of how sustainable practices can be seamlessly integrated into modern Islamic architecture [49]. This case offers a valuable opportunity to study how Islamic identity can be preserved and enhanced through eco-conscious architectural innovation.
- Al-Ándalus Mosque (Spain—Southern Europe): Given the historical influence of Andalusian architectural styles on Islamic architecture in Spain [50], the Al-Ándalus Mosque was selected as a compelling case study to explore this ongoing legacy. The mosque embodies the enduring presence of Andalusian Islamic civilization by reinterpreting traditional elements such as horseshoe arches, zellij tilework, muqarnas, and intricate floral motifs within a modern architectural context. These features maintain a visible link to Andalusian heritage and offer a means to explore how historical Islamic identities are sustained in contemporary settings.
- Rijeka Mosque (Croatia—Eastern Europe): As noted by [51], cities with large Bosniak communities, like Rijeka, have developed modern Islamic centers that embrace diverse architectural styles, from Ottoman-inspired interpretations to minimalist, abstract expressions. Rijeka Mosque exemplifies the latter through its starkly minimalist design, characterized by clean lines, panoramic windows, and sculptural domes. It stands in contrast to the other selected cases, as it lacks extensive traditional ornamentation. This makes it a valuable case for examining how minimalism and contemporary esthetics affect the visual and symbolic expression of Islamic identity in European contexts.
4. Results
4.1. Case Study 1: Cologne Central Mosque (Germany)
4.2. Case Study 2: Cambridge Central Mosque (United Kingdom)
4.3. Case Study 3: Al-Ándalus Mosque (Spain)
4.4. Case Study 4: Rijeka Mosque (Croatia)
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
- Architects should thoughtfully integrate traditional Islamic elements—such as calligraphy, geometric patterns, and domes—into current architectural forms. In the European setting, striking this balance will enable mosques both to express their profound cultural identity and meet the practical necessities of modern urban life.
- Contemporary materials and techniques should be used to reinterpret traditional Islamic ornamentation, ensuring designs remain rooted in their heritage while fitting seamlessly into modern European contexts. This will promote a stronger sense of belonging for Muslim communities within diverse societies and help in creating inclusive and welcoming spaces.
- Modern materials and technologies can be thoughtfully integrated to enhance Islamic identity in mosque design. Instead of replacing traditional ornamentation, these innovations can help highlight its esthetic and symbolic qualities. For instance, lighting can be used to cast intricate patterned shadows, while golden-toned steel may be incorporated to reinterpret traditional motifs within a contemporary architectural language.
- While minimalism is often appreciated in contemporary architecture for its clarity, efficiency, and contribution to sustainability, mosque design should adopt a balanced approach that avoids excessive simplification.
- Minimalism can be thoughtfully applied in certain areas within the mosque, while key elements such as the Mihrab and dome should retain meaningful ornamentation to preserve their spiritual depth and express an Islamic identity. Increasing ornamentation in appropriate areas strengthens their identity, whereas excessive reduction may risk diminishing it.
- In European contexts, the mosque’s exterior facade holds particular significance, as it serves as a visible symbol of an Islamic identity and presence within the public realm. Thus, incorporating ornamentation on the facade will not only enhance architectural expression but also strengthen the sense of belonging for Muslim communities living in the diaspora.
- In European mosques, ornamentation should improve the spiritual ambiance and user experience in addition to being esthetically pleasing. Designs should use light, materials, and symbolic details like calligraphy, patterns, and textures to create spaces that support worship and emotional comfort.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Element | Location | Cultural Dimension | Esthetic Dimension | Functional Dimension | Influence of Modern Styles | Impact on Mosque Identity |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Geometric Latticework | Interior: Walls and ceiling of the main prayer hall | Inspired by Mamluk and Persian cultures, reflecting their rich tradition of geometric complexity and mathematical precision. | The intricate patterns on the walls and ceiling enhance the mosque’s visual appeal, fostering a serene and contemplative atmosphere. | Regulates acoustics by reducing echoes and improving sound clarity during prayers. | Combines traditional Mamluk and Persian lattice design with precise modern techniques, using durable materials to enhance functionality. | Establishes a strong connection to historical Islamic art while making the space feel timelessly modern. |
2. Geometric Facade | Exterior: Main walls | Rooted in neo-Ottoman traditions, the patterns reflect Islamic unity and balance. | Adds depth and texture to the exterior, creating a powerful visual identity for the mosque that is both bold and welcoming. | Connects the mosque to its surroundings, symbolizing openness and community integration. | Reinterprets Ottoman motifs using modern materials and construction techniques, emphasizing innovation. | Bridges Islamic cultural heritage and contemporary architecture, making the mosque a modern landmark. |
3. Grid-Patterned Glasswork | Interior: Main prayer hall | Inspired by Islamic geometric principles, reflecting order and symmetry. | Enriches the prayer hall’s ambiance, reflects modern Islamic design, and fosters a sense of openness. | Provides light diffusion, ensures privacy, and complements the mosque’s structural design. | Integrates contemporary materials and minimalist esthetics, reinterpreting traditional Islamic patterns in a modern architectural context. | Enhances the mosque’s Islamic identity by modernizing traditional geometric patterns while preserving their cultural and symbolic significance. |
4. Calligraphic Reliefs | Interior: Entrance walls | Inspired by Ottoman and Arabic calligraphy, featuring Quranic inscriptions that highlight the sacredness of the Quranic message. | The golden calligraphy, contrasting elegantly with the white geometric latticework, is both visually captivating and spiritually uplifting, creating a contemplative ambiance. | Serve as a visual reminder of faith, conveying the sacredness of the Quranic message while also educating visitors on the artistry of Islamic calligraphy. | Employ contemporary fonts and layouts, presenting a modern interpretation of traditional Islamic calligraphy. | Partially connect to traditional identity; modern typography slightly alters cultural depth. |
5. Dome Decorations | Interior: Above the main prayer hall | Rooted in Ottoman traditions, these feature the iconic eight-pointed star, inspired by Islamic art, evoking a sense of luxury. | The dome’s patterns reflect sunlight and shadows on the walls, creating a serene and harmonious ambiance. | Enhance the interplay of light and shadow, create a visually dynamic atmosphere, and emphasize the architectural centrality of the mosque. | Combine traditional Islamic motifs with modern design techniques, using contemporary materials to reinterpret classical patterns in an innovative way. | Strengthen the mosque’s Islamic identity by preserving cultural symbolism, while their modern execution bridges tradition and contemporary design. |
6. Mihrab Ornamentation | Interior: Qibla wall | Blends traditional Islamic artistry with modern design. | Features elegant calligraphy and gold-colored stucco panels, enriching the spiritual ambiance of the prayer space. | Marks the direction of prayer, ensures spatial orientation, and serves as a visually inspiring focal point. | Reflects modern influences through its minimalist design, streamlined calligraphy, and contemporary use of gold-colored stucco panels. | Enriches the mosque’s Islamic identity by merging tradition with modern design, preserving its symbolic essence. |
Element | Location | Cultural Dimension | Esthetic Dimension | Functional Dimension | Influence of Modern Styles | Impact on Mosque Identity |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Kufic Brickwork | Exterior: Facade walls | Inspired by Persian and early Islamic architecture, incorporating Kufic script for cultural connection. | Intricate Kufic calligraphy patterns add texture, depth, and artistic value to the facade. | Improves thermal performance and educates visitors on Islamic art and calligraphy. | Uses sustainable brickwork with Kufic motifs for energy efficiency and cultural identity. | Reinforces Islamic identity through sustainable reinterpretation of tradition. |
2. Timber Latticework | Interior: Intersection of columns and ceiling | Inspired by Islamic geometric principles and local British craftsmanship. | Intersecting timber beams form net-like patterns on the ceiling, creating a harmonious interior. | Supports the roof structure while creating a sense of enclosure and visual rhythm. | Combines Islamic geometry with advanced timber engineering, integrating skylights atop timber ’tree’ columns for natural light. | The visual focus might shift toward innovation over heritage. |
3. Calligraphic Panels | Interior: Prayer area walls | Draw from Ottoman and Arabic traditions, featuring Quranic verses. | Modern calligraphy enhances the sacred ambiance and adds visual depth. | Provide visual guidance for worshipers and emphasize the sanctity of the prayer space. | Reinterpret classical calligraphy using contemporary typography. | Partly reflect tradition, but modern typography reduces cultural depth. |
4. Dome’s Geometric Ornamentation | Exterior: Above the prayer hall | Blends Islamic geometric traditions with a contemporary context, reflecting the fusion of Islamic and local cultural influences. | Harmonizes with its surroundings through geometric forms and natural tones, reflecting nearby architectural rhythms. | Acts as a visual landmark, aiding orientation and reinforcing its presence as a cultural and religious center. | The gilded dome blends Islamic tradition with modern design, offering a contemporary interpretation. | Reinforces the mosque’s Islamic identity by balancing traditional symbolism with modern minimalist esthetics. |
5. Dome’s Light Perforations | Interior: Around the periphery of the dome | Inspired by Ottoman and Mughal skylights, with perforations reflecting Islamic patterns. | Create abstract patterns of light and shadow that enhance the spatial ambiance. | Improve natural light and ambiance during prayer times, reduce glare, and enhance the dome’s role. | Integrate advanced lighting design to reinterpret traditional perforations. | Boost ambiance but emphasize modern spatial effects over Islamic identity. |
6. Flooring Patterns | Interior: Atrium floor | Inspired by traditional Islamic geometry, with octagonal patterns reflecting cultural heritage and harmony. | Enhance visual appeal with intricate octagonal designs, merging tradition with modern elegance. | Guide visitors and define spatial boundaries, aiding the flow between the entrance and prayer halls. | Reflect modernity with precise geometry and contemporary materials, reinterpreting tradition. | Strengthen the mosque’s identity by merging Islamic geometry with modern execution. |
7. Mihrab Ornamentation | Interior: Qibla wall within the main prayer hall | Blends Persian and Andalusian architectural traditions with modern Islamic art. | Geometric patterns and calligraphic tiles form a detailed focal point, defining the sacred space. | Provides an acoustic and visual focus for the congregation, connecting them to the imam. | Merges traditional elements with contemporary design for enhanced functionality. | Establishes a strong Islamic identity as an architectural and spiritual focal point. |
Element | Location | Cultural Dimension | Esthetic Dimension | Functional Dimension | Influence of Modern Styles | Impact on Mosque Identity |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Horseshoe Arches | Interior: Prayer Hall | Reflect the Andalusian architectural style, symbolizing the historical Islamic presence in Spain. | Elegant curves enhance the visual appeal, creating a sense of grandeur and continuity. | Define spatial divisions and guide movement within the mosque. | Integrate traditional forms with contemporary construction techniques. | Strengthen the mosque’s identity by connecting it to Spain’s Islamic heritage. |
2. Geometric Tilework (Zellij) | Interior: Walls of the Prayer Hall | Embodies Islamic traditions, highlighting the role of geometry and abstraction. | Intricate patterns provide visual complexity and rhythm, enhancing the interior’s beauty. | Protects surfaces while serving as decoration, insulation, and a reflection of cultural craftsmanship. | Utilizes traditional designs with modern color schemes and materials. | Reinforces Islamic identity through the use of classic decorative arts. |
3. Arabic Calligraphy | Interior and Exterior: Above Arches and Entrances | Features Quranic verses, highlighting the significance of the Arabic language in Islamic culture. | Enhances esthetic appeal while adding elegance and richness through detailed craftsmanship. | Conveys religious messages to worshipers, fostering and reinforcing their faith. | Integrates traditional calligraphic styles with modern typography. | Enhances the mosque’s identity by emphasizing the importance of the Quran. |
4. Minbar Woodwork Ornamentation | Interior: Adjacent to Mihrab | Reflects Islamic Andalusian art, blending heritage and craftsmanship while emphasizing its sacred role. | Exhibits intricate woodwork, showcasing craftsmanship and attention to detail. | Enhances the Minbar’s sacredness, reflects Andalusian heritage, and creates an inspiring focal point. | Incorporates traditional design with modern ergonomic considerations. | Reinforces the mosque’s role as a center for Islamic teaching and community. |
5. Floral and Vegetal Motifs | Interior: Decorative Panels and Ceilings | Symbolize the Islamic appreciation for nature and the representation of paradise. | Add organic beauty and softness to architectural elements. | Enhance the space with refined details, fostering tranquility and harmony. | Blend traditional motifs with contemporary artistic interpretations. | Strengthen the mosque’s identity by connecting it to Islamic artistic heritage. |
6. Ribbed Domes | Exterior: Above the Prayer Hall and Mihrab | Demonstrate the ingenuity of Islamic architectural engineering in Al-Andalus, reflecting the sophistication of Muslim Spain. | The interlacing ribs create intricate patterns, enhancing the visual complexity and beauty of the mosque’s facade. | Provide structural support while allowing for expansive, open interior spaces. | Integrate traditional Islamic dome construction with the innovative design techniques of the period. | Highlight the mosque’s architectural prominence and connection to the legacy of Al-Andalus. |
7. Ornamental Facades | Exterior: Main Entrances and Walls | Showcase Islamic facade art, emphasizing symmetry and intricate details of Al-Andalus architecture. | Elaborate carvings and patterns enhance the mosque’s beauty, marking it as an artistic landmark. | Serve to impress and welcome worshipers and visitors, reflecting the mosque’s significance in the community. | Blend Andalusian traditions with modern designs, techniques, and durable materials. | Strengthen Islamic identity by preserving Al-Andalus’s artistic legacy, symbolizing Islamic heritage in Spain. |
8. Mihrab Ornamentation | Interior: Prayer Niche | Features a traditional Andalusian horseshoe arch and geometric motifs, reflecting the Islamic heritage of Al-Andalus. | Intricate patterns and vibrant colors create a visually striking focal point, enhancing the mosque’s spiritual ambiance. | Marks the Qibla direction, amplifies the imam’s voice during prayers, and provides a visual focus for the congregation. | Integrates classical Islamic designs with modern construction techniques to ensure durability. | Reinforces Islamic identity by preserving the Andalusian architectural heritage. |
Element | Location | Cultural Dimension | Esthetic Dimension | Functional Dimension | Influence of Modern Styles | Impact on Mosque Identity |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Sculptural Domes | Exterior: Roof Structure | Inspired by Ottoman domes, symbolizing the unity of the Muslim community, and reinterpreted in a modern sculptural form. | The interlocking domes create a dynamic, harmonious effect, enhancing the mosque’s skyline. | Provide structural coverage for the prayer hall, facilitating natural light and acoustics. | Modern materials like stainless steel plates provide a futuristic look while retaining traditional symbolism. | Establish the mosque as a modern Islamic landmark in Europe, blending tradition and innovation. |
2. Spiral Minaret | Exterior: Adjacent to the Main Structure | Represents a modern interpretation of the traditional minaret. | Its refined, spiraling design adds a contemporary esthetic, contributing to the mosque’s distinctive form. | Serves as a visual focal point, creates a sense of movement and dynamism, and adds uniqueness to the mosque’s overall design. | Incorporates modern design principles and materials, departing from conventional minaret structures. | Highlights the mosque’s embracing of contemporary design while honoring Islamic architectural traditions. |
3. Geometric Facade Patterns | Exterior: Outer Walls and Entrances | Embody Islamic art’s emphasis on geometry and abstraction, seamlessly merging tradition with modern innovation. | Enhance esthetic appeal through symmetry, abstraction, and light–shadow interplay, merging traditional Islamic art with modern elegance. | Serve as a visual representation of Islamic cultural heritage, enhancing the building’s identity without compromising structural integrity. | Blend traditional Islamic geometric art with modern construction and minimalist design. | Strengthen the cultural identity of the mosque by integrating recognizable Islamic artistic motifs in a contemporary context. |
4. Panoramic Windows | Interior: Prayer Hall and Community Areas | Symbolize openness and connection, blending Islamic architectural values with a modern esthetic to reflect cultural inclusivity. | Enhance the interior’s ambiance, creating a welcoming and open atmosphere. | Improve energy efficiency by maximizing daylight and reducing the need for artificial lighting. | Reflect modern styles with expansive glass surfaces that maximize natural light and connect the interior to the surroundings. | Position the mosque as a community space, blending traditional practices with modern environmental considerations. |
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© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Al Khalifa, H.E.; Lafi, M.W. Ornamentation and Islamic Identity in Contemporary European Mosques: An Analysis of Cultural, Aesthetic, and Functional Dimensions and Modern Influences. Buildings 2025, 15, 1302. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15081302
Al Khalifa HE, Lafi MW. Ornamentation and Islamic Identity in Contemporary European Mosques: An Analysis of Cultural, Aesthetic, and Functional Dimensions and Modern Influences. Buildings. 2025; 15(8):1302. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15081302
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl Khalifa, Haifa Ebrahim, and May Walid Lafi. 2025. "Ornamentation and Islamic Identity in Contemporary European Mosques: An Analysis of Cultural, Aesthetic, and Functional Dimensions and Modern Influences" Buildings 15, no. 8: 1302. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15081302
APA StyleAl Khalifa, H. E., & Lafi, M. W. (2025). Ornamentation and Islamic Identity in Contemporary European Mosques: An Analysis of Cultural, Aesthetic, and Functional Dimensions and Modern Influences. Buildings, 15(8), 1302. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15081302