Aesthetic Evaluation of Rural Space and Optimisation of Planning Strategies: A Case Study of Dongqiao Town, Zhejiang Province

Abstract

With increasing global efforts to increase the quality of rural spaces, traditional planning models, which emphasise engineering-related and economic considerations, are no longer able to fully meet the public’s diverse aesthetic demands. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce an aesthetic perspective to conduct research on evaluation of and planning strategies for rural spaces. Taking Dongqiao Town in Fuyang District, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, China, as a case study, this study constructed a comprehensive evaluation system that integrated indicators related to aesthetic subjects (demand, perception, satisfaction) with those related to aesthetic objects (richness, aggregation, radiation). Point of interest data collection, Geographic Information System spatial analysis, questionnaire surveys, and interviews were used to analyse and compare the characteristics of 11 administrative villages in Dongqiao Town in terms of aesthetic resources, spatial structure, and transportation accessibility. In addition, the study examined the mechanism of the interaction between aesthetic subjects and objects and its impact on the survival and construction of the focal spaces. The results showed that core regions such as Dongqiao Village, Xiande Village, and Sanxi Village stood out in terms of aesthetic resources and transportation advantages, while more remote villages faced challenges such as a lack of aesthetic elements and poor accessibility. In response to these characteristics and shortcomings, the research proposed optimisation strategies such as differentiated and zoned construction and the participation of multiple entities in dynamic evaluation and regulation, providing theoretical support and practical guidance for improving the quality of rural spaces, strengthening regional culture, and achieving sustainable development.

1. Introduction

In recent years, with the continuous advancement of urbanisation and the rise of the concept of ecological civilisation, countries worldwide have increasingly recognised the multifaceted value of rural areas in ecological conservation, cultural heritage preservation, and the balanced development of society [1,2]. For example, Europe features pastoral settlements that prioritise landscape preservation [3], Japan promotes rural revitalisation practices emphasising everyday aesthetics and community building [4], and North America focuses on maintaining farmland landscapes and a sense of place [5]. In summary, the countryside is not merely an agricultural production space; it is evolving into an integrated arena that embodies cultural identity, ecological ethics, and ideals of living.

To date, research on rural space has focused on three main fields: types of space and their meanings, strategies for protecting and developing space, and spatial planning. Research has found that people’s aesthetic demands are the key driving force of spatial planning, justifying and giving meaning to the development of space [6]. Participatory planning has also gradually gained attention and developed [7]. Based on landscape aesthetics [8], rural aesthetics provide an important foundation for the creation and construction of rural space [9], which covers many aspects, such as natural environments, man-made environments, and social and economic environments [10]. Therefore, it is vital to protect and ensure the inheritance of the aesthetic elements of rural space that affect rural evaluation [11]. In the processes of planning and constructing rural space, people (aesthetic subjects) experience the natural beauty, cultural atmosphere, and architectural forms of rural space (the aesthetic object) through various sensory channels, thereby gradually establishing an impression of rural space and evaluating its aesthetic qualities accordingly [12]. These evaluations encourage others to engage aesthetically with rural space, thereby promoting participatory planning among different groups of people [13], which constitutes an internal driving force for promoting rural aesthetic activities and rural spatial planning and development. Spatial planning evaluation typically involves the use of questionnaire surveys [14] and ArcGIS 10.6 analysis [15] to evaluate spatial quality, spatial value, spatial accessibility, and aesthetic experiences [16]. However, a review of the literature reveals problems with spatial planning and evaluation: (1) planning relies too much on standardisation and engineering logic, and the system of and indexes for aesthetic evaluation are not mature; (2) the mechanism by which aesthetic evaluative feedback affects spatial planning decisions and then drives spatial optimisation remains unclear; (3) the interaction between aesthetic subjects and their long-term influence on spatial evolution are not included in the evaluation system for analysis.

With the increasing reassessment and reconstruction of rural space worldwide, the Chinese countryside provides a valuable case study, with distinctive characteristics such as a large number of different and interwoven development stages. Dongqiao Town, a pilot site for the “beautiful villages” initiative in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China, features natural landscapes, agricultural landscapes, historical heritage, and modern leisure business, and it needs to meet the aesthetic requirements of multiple subjects, such as villagers, tourists, and planning managers. Donqiao thus epitomises the shift in the transformation of Chinese villages from an engineering-based logic to an emphasis on quality enhancement. Therefore, this study selected Dongqiao Town in Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province as a case study, aiming to determine and explore the natural resources and social and cultural advantages of Dongqiao Town, identify problems with its planning practice and put forward corresponding optimisation strategies, and provide a reference for the planning practice of other regions. Although the empirical case is located in China, the theoretical framework and evaluation indicators constructed in it cover universal aesthetic mechanisms that can apply to diverse rural contexts.

On this basis, this research combined the qualitative and quantitative methods of ArcGIS analysis, questionnaire surveys, interviews, and field research to address the following three key research questions regarding the aesthetic evaluation and planning of rural space in Dongqiao Town:

Q1: Which indicators are used for the aesthetic evaluation of rural space?

Q2: What problems or advantages of rural space are reflected in the evaluation results?

Q3: How can planning strategies be optimised according to the current situation of rural space?

2. Research Setting and Methods

2.1. Geography, Economy, and Culture of Dongqiao Town

Dongqiao Town is located in the northwest of Fuyang District, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, in the southeast coastal area of China. It can be found in the “one-hour traffic circle” of Hangzhou City and is closely connected with the Yangtze River Delta region. Its topography is diverse, rich in mountains, rivers, forests, and fields. It has jurisdiction over 11 administrative villages: Dongqiao Village, Liren Village, Shiyang Village, Daxi Village, Sanxi Village, Yuanjia Village, Fenrui Village, Xiande Village, Wencun Village, Chakou Village, and Dale Village (Figure 1).

Dongqiao Town has a solid foundation in traditional agriculture and is experiencing the rapid development of emerging specialty agriculture with an economic focus and tourism-focused agriculture. The secondary industry mainly involves processing of hardware and bicycle parts, but its overall development is relatively slow. The tertiary industry is dominated by “campus+” agricultural tourism and culture, forming a model of integrated development of three types of industries led by the tertiary industry. Dongqiao Town has a long history and rich cultural resources, with the latter represented by the Tang Dynasty poet Shi Jianwu and the modern Pritzker Architecture Award-winning architect Wang Shu. The town was also home to eminent historical figures such as Chen Sheng, the Tang Dynasty magistrate, and Xu Chaozong, the Ming Dynasty sage and historian [17]. Its architectural style is represented by ancient villages, ancient residences, and modern natural communities, along with numerous historical buildings with prominent artistic architectural features. In addition, there are town- and village-specific characteristics such as local cuisine, festival customs, and specialty products.

2.2. Research Methods and Data Sources

2.2.1. Research Methods

Aesthetic activities involve processes of interaction and realisation of meaning between the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object [18]. Therefore, the aesthetic evaluation of rural spaces demands to be carried out from two perspectives: that of the aesthetic subject and that of the aesthetic object.

The aesthetic subject is an individual or group with aesthetic consciousness and emotions [19]. The subject deploys their cognition, emotions, experience, and cultural background to participate in aesthetic activities [20]. According to their functions and aesthetic demands, subjects can be classified into multiple groups, such as government officials, enterprise staff, planners, residents, and tourists [21]. Based on the dynamic behavioural sequence of “spatial presentation—image formation—aesthetic evaluation” in aesthetic activities [22], the corresponding evaluation indicators of demand, perception, and satisfaction were selected for the present study. These indicators, respectively, reflect the attractiveness of spatial aesthetic elements to the aesthetic subject, the depth of the aesthetic subject’s understanding of the cultural connotation of the space, and comprehensive feedback on the overall planning; they thus cover the entire process of aesthetic activity, from interest stimulation to meaning construction and evaluative feedback [23]. The inclusion of aesthetic subject indicators provides a new analytical perspective for evaluation. This expands the theoretical category of rural aesthetics, so that it is not limited to the evaluation of the visual level.

“Aesthetic object” in this context refers to the rural space subject to aesthetic evaluation or any aspect of that space that can be perceived and that evokes aesthetic feelings, such as natural landscapes, architectural spaces, and festival activities [24]. According to the nature of the space, it can be classified as material, spiritual, or social [25,26]. Based on the principle of aesthetic multi-dimensionality [27] and the theory of spatial aesthetics [28], the evaluation of rural spaces must consider both the diversity and the hierarchy of a space’s content, as well as its structural organisation and interaction with its environment [29]. These characteristics correspond to the richness of the aesthetic elements, the centrality of the region, and the space’s external interactivity. In this study, therefore, spatial element richness, regional element aggregation, and traffic radiation were selected as the evaluation indexes for the aesthetic object.

Evaluating the indicators associated with the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object can reveal the advantages and disadvantages of current rural space from an aesthetic perspective, providing data support for subsequent planning optimisation. Specifically, the differences in demand, perception, and satisfaction of different groups of aesthetic subjects can identify the specific demands and emotional feedback of specific groups in the use and cognition of rural space, and then find the links that have not been fully accounted for in space configuration and cultural expression. Based on the analysis of the three indexes of richness, aggregation and radiation in the spatial aesthetic object, the performance of current spatial planning in terms of content presentation, node organisation and external connection can be judged and the expression mechanism of aesthetic value can be elucidated. Combined with the interaction between the two dimensions of subject and object, this research constructed the technical path of “aesthetic evaluation–feature identification–strategy response” to provide theoretical support and practical guidance for rural planning (Figure 2).

2.2.2. Data Sources

Based on point of interest (POI) data obtained from Autonavi Map in August 2024, data collection and sorting of rural spatial aesthetic element points in Dongqiao Town were carried out. The actual use status and functional characteristics of the space were observed through fieldwork, and the aesthetic elements of rural space were classified (Figure 3). The corresponding specific rural spatial carriers are shown in Appendix A. ArcGIS was used to process and analyse the data.

A questionnaire survey was administered to government and enterprise representatives, planners, residents, and tourists in Dongqiao Town. The survey (shown in Appendix B) covered the basic information of the respondents and their use and evaluation of rural space in Dongqiao Town. Evaluation was measured on a 5-point scale, with 1 representing the most negative and 5 representing the most positive evaluation. These data were subjected to quantitative scoring. Evaluation scores for the aesthetic subjects’ demands, perceptions, and satisfaction regarding the aesthetic elements of different aesthetic objects were calculated. Data visualisation was carried out on the ChiPlot platform.

The permanent population count in Dongqiao Town during the seventh population census was 12,844 [30]. Further investigation revealed that this population included 372 preschool children and approximately 700 people over 80 years old. Due to the limited ability of these two groups to fill out the questionnaire, they were excluded from the subsequent analysis. The total number of government employees in Dongqiao Town during the seventh population census was 82 [31], and there were 198 industrial enterprises and 25 commercial enterprises with a business area of more than 50 square metres [32]. The town receives more than 5000 tourists per month [33]. According to the sample survey formula used by [34,35], sample size (n) was calculated as follows:

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{z^2 \times p \times (1 - p)}{e^2}}$$

(1)

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{z^2\times p\times (1-p)/e^2}{1+[z^2\times p\times \frac{1-p}{\left(e^2 \times N\right)}]}}$$

(2)

The total population (N = 19,077) and the margin of error (e = 0.05) were selected. When the confidence level was 90%, the corresponding z-value was 1.645. The worst-case percentage of the population was used, that is, p = 50%. Substituting these values into Equation (1) and finite population correction Equation (2) yielded a sample size n ≈ 267 with finite population correction.

According to the proportional distribution, the sample size (n₁) of different populations was calculated using the following formula:

$$n_1={\displaystyle \frac{N_1\times n}{N}}$$

(3)

N₁ is the total population of different populations. Substituting the number of permanent residents of and the average number of tourists received by Dongqiao Town into Equation (3), the minimum sample size of permanent residents and tourists was 167 and 100, respectively. The minimum sample size of the resident population was 1 for government workers, 3 for enterprise workers, and 163 for residents. There was thus a significant imbalance in the sizes of the samples to be collected among the three groups, and the projected sample size for government and enterprise workers was insufficient. To solve this problem, an oversampling method was adopted to increase the sample size of government and enterprise workers to more than 15 to balance the sample sizes of different populations in the permanent population dataset. Therefore, the sample size of permanent residents and tourists was required to be at least 293. To collect data from planners, eight planners who were familiar with Dongqiao Town were invited to complete the questionnaire survey. A total of 500 questionnaires were distributed in this research, and 313 valid questionnaires were collected and screened.

The reliability and validity of the valid questionnaire data were tested. Cronbach’s α coefficient was used as the main index of reliability analysis, and factor analysis was used to determine the validity, using the metrics of Keiser–Meyer–Olkin value, commonality, variance explanation rate and factor loading coefficient. SPSSAU (https://spssau.com/) analysis and output reliability reports, including Cronbach’s α coefficients, are shown in

Table 1. Cronbach reliability analysis.

Dimension	Number of Terms	Sample Size	Cronbach’s α Coefficient
Material space	99	313	0.971
Spiritual space	93	313	0.987
Social space	18	313	0.914

, and validity reports are shown in

Table 2. KMO values and Bartlett’s test of sphericity.

Dimension	KMO Value	Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity
		Approximate Chi-Square	df	p Value
Material space	0.862	27,001.099	4851	0.000
Spiritual space	0.884	29,130.900	4278	0.000
Social space	0.917	3083.817	153	0.000

.

The Cronbach’s α value for each dimension was higher than 0.9, indicating that the data showed high reliability and the questionnaire showed good internal consistency, which ensured the stability and reliability of the measurement results. The KMO values of each dimension were greater than 0.8, the significance level of Bartlett’s test was low, and the p values were less than 0.05, indicating that the data were sufficiently correlated and the construct validity of the questionnaire was good.

3. Aesthetic Evaluation

3.1. Aesthetic Object Evaluation

3.1.1. Richness Evaluation

The overall spatial richness of Dongqiao Town showed the characteristics of high concentration and a multi-level decline. The town administrative centre, the primary core area, showed the most abundant spatial resources and activity concentration. The village-level administrative centre, the secondary core area, showed less spatial richness than the town administrative centre, indicating a gradient change in richness distribution. The richness distribution in other regions was affected by natural terrain conditions and the road traffic network, showing diversified patterns.

The richness of material space showed a wide geographical distribution. The rural spatial element points for richness showed a patchy aggregation pattern, mainly distributed in Dongqiao Village, Daxi Village, and Sanxi Village and at the intersection between Wencun Village, Xiande Village, and Chakou Village. For spiritual space, the element points for richness showed a lower coverage density and more scattered distribution characteristics, with a point distribution. The core areas were mostly located in village centres. Shaped by the road network system, the richness of social space showed an extended ribbon-shaped form, as reflected in the development of Dongqiao Village, Daxi Village, Sanxi Village, Wencun Village, Xiande Village, and Chakou Village along traffic routes (Figure 4).

Across the whole region, 5.3% of the area showed all three spatial types (material, spiritual, and social), concentrated in Dongqiao Village, Daxi Village, Sanxi Village, Xiande Village, and Chakou Village and distributed around the centre of each village and along the road. The dual material–spiritual spatial type was distributed in Dongqiao Village, Wencun Village, Daxi Village, and other villages but did not show a clear geographical concentration. Another 8.0% of the region showed the material–social dual spatial type, mainly distributed in Dongqiao, Daxi, and Xiande villages and related to the road traffic network. Regions with both spiritual and social spatial types were extremely rare. Usually, they co-exist with material spatial types. In addition, 20.8% of the areas had only a single spatial type, and 62.8% of the areas had no spatial type distribution (Figure 5).

Analysis of the composition of rural spatial types in Dongqiao Town (Figure 6) revealed the characteristics of stratification and interaction. The material space data showed that 60.2% of the space comprised solely material space, composed primarily of the fixed material space elements of settlements and streets. Of this material space, 14.4% was integrated with spiritual space, as reflected in fixed material–spiritual space elements, such as the rural environment, buildings and structures, and mobile material–spiritual space elements, such as cultural and historical records and handicrafts. Another 25.4% of the material space was integrated with social space, as represented primarily by buildings and structures, along with a small number of settlement and street elements. The spiritual space was highly dependent on the existence of material space and social space, and there were almost no independent spiritual space elements. Spiritual elements such as festival activities, traditional skills, notable local figures, red culture, and clan culture depend on both fixed material space elements, such as settlements and streets, buildings and structures, and mobile material space elements, such as cultural and historical records and handicrafts. Festival activities, traditional skills, red culture, and clan culture also have strong social attributes, which are closely related to daily activities, subject participation, and community activities. Of the social space, 59.5% was represented by single social space elements, mainly production relations; 25.3% was integrated with material space, reflected in the elements of daily activities, subject participation, and community activities; and 15.2% was integrated with spiritual space, reflected in specific elements such as dialect slang, daily activities, and institutional norms.

3.1.2. Aggregation Evaluation

Aggregation, a quantitative index, was used to measure the degree of aggregation of rural spatial aesthetic elements in a specific area. In Dongqiao Town, the aesthetic elements of material space showed distinct aggregation characteristics, distributed primarily in the core areas of villages and along the main roads, with a small number scattered in the peripheral areas of residential areas. The distribution of the aesthetic elements of material space was unbalanced between villages. They were most abundant and most concentrated in Dongqiao Village, accounting for 22.9% of the total amount of such elements in the town. Daxi Village, Liren Village, Sanxi Village, Wencun Village, and Xiande Village followed, with a combined proportion of material space aesthetic elements of above 10%. Dale Village had the smallest proportion of material space aesthetic elements, at only 2.9%, along with the weakest aggregation of these elements.

Compared with those of material space, the aesthetic elements of spiritual space in Dongqiao Town were found to be relatively scarce, with their patterns of distribution relying heavily on those of material space. Spiritual aesthetic elements were mainly concentrated in the town centre, Sanxi Village, and the overlap between Daxi and Xiande villages, forming gathering areas for spiritual space aesthetic activities. The other rural spiritual space aesthetic elements were sparsely distributed, representing less than 5% of the total amount of aesthetic elements; this demonstrated the imbalanced spatial distribution of elements.

Aesthetic elements of social space showed strong aggregation, forming a point-like distribution from the centre of the village, with the crowded residential area as the core area. Comparison of all villages revealed that Dongqiao Village, as the administrative centre of Dongqiao Town, gathered a large number of social space aesthetic elements, accounting for 39.7%. Therefore, Dongqiao Village was significantly ahead of the other villages, followed by Sanxi Village, which accounted for 10.6%. Dale Village showed the weakest aggregation of social space aesthetic elements, accounting for only 2.4% (Figure 7).

Comprehensive analysis of the aggregation of different spatial aesthetic elements revealed that high-density areas gathered diverse rural spatial aesthetic elements and constituted the core areas of rural spatial aesthetic activities (Figure 7). Detailed village-level analysis found that Dongqiao village showed the highest aggregation level, with Daxi Village, Sanxi Village, Xiande Village, and Wencun Village also showing high levels of aggregation, and the distribution of various aesthetic elements was balanced. Liren Village showed a high level of aggregation of material and spiritual space aesthetic elements, but its distribution of social space elements was scattered. Dale Village and Yuanjia Village showed lower levels of aggregation, the reasons for which need to be further explored and corresponding improvement strategies formulated (Figure 8).

To sum up, the rural spatial aesthetic elements of Dongqiao Town were found to show the dual spatial characteristics of a centralised and linear distribution. The layout pattern revolved around the township administrative centre and the main road network, following a gradual decline on a spatial gradient from the centre to the periphery.

3.1.3. Radiation Evaluation

With Dongqiao Town government as the centre of aesthetic activity, traffic radiation evaluation was carried out under the ideal conditions of the preset traffic speed of 30 km/h and pedestrian speed of 5 km/h (Figure 9). The results showed that due to the influence of natural terrain and infrastructure construction, all rural spatial elements except for mountainous areas and areas without road access were accessible within 30 min by car and 210 min by foot. Specifically, 29.9% of the element points had excellent accessibility, offering convenient access within 5 min by car or 30 min by foot. However, 7.9% of the element points were associated with traffic difficulties lasting for more than 30 min or were difficult to reach directly. Of these element points, 92.6% were rural environment elements in material space, and the remaining 7.4% were production activity elements in social space. In addition, 3.1% of the element points, all of which were rural environment elements, had a walking time much longer than 210 min or could not be reached at all. Regional comparison showed that the areas surrounding the Dongqiao Town government, especially the central and northern areas, could be reached by the public in a short time due to good traffic conditions and location advantages. The zone surrounding the core area (shown in light yellow in Figure 9) had high accessibility despite the increase in traffic time compared with the central area. In contrast, the southern and eastern regions showed weak traffic radiation.

In the analysis of transportation time at the village level (

Table 3. Villages’ transportation times (with the administrative centre of the town as the origin).

Categories	Time/ Minutes	Chakou	Dale	Daxi	Dongqiao	FengRui	Liren	Sanxi	Shiyang	Wencun	Xiande	Yuanjia
Drive	Min	17	21	8	0	26	3	9	2	20	12	17
	Max	31	29	18	16	34	20	22	11	35	28	26
	Avg	21	25	13	3	30	12	14	5	26	17	22
Walk	Min	105	128	46	0	158	15	57	11	121	71	101
	Max	210	174	210	210	210	210	210	64	210	169	210
	Avg	128	148	80	21	179	73	87	34	158	105	133

), Dongqiao Village was found to have outstanding traffic convenience due to its geographical location, adjacent to the town centre. All of the element points except the six remote rural space aesthetic element points could be reached within an average of 3 min by car or 21 min by foot, and the longest time was no more than 16 min by car or 100 min by foot. In terms of traffic convenience, the next best was Shiyang Village, whose element points could be reached within 2 to 11 min by car and 11 to 64 min by walking; it thus had traffic advantages but low walking efficiency. Due to their geographical location, residents of other villages tend to travel by motor vehicles, and it is inconvenient to walk. Chakou, Dile, Daxi, Liren, Sanxi, Xiande and Yuanjia villages had better traffic radiation, with the arrival time of vehicles to each element point within 8 and 31 min. Traffic radiation in Fengrui Village and Wencun Village was weak. There were 14 element points in Fengrui Village that took more than 30 min by car or were difficult to reach. Wencun Village was in a similar situation. Twenty element points could only be reached by car in more than 30 min or could not be directly reached at all, and the nearest element point could only be reached in 20 min by car or 120 min by foot (Figure 10).

3.2. Aesthetic Subject Evaluation

3.2.1. Basic Information on Aesthetic Subjects

A total of 313 valid questionnaires were collected, of which 23 questionnaires were from government staff, accounting for 7% of the total; 19 were from enterprise staff, accounting for 6% of the total; and 8 were from planners, accounting for 3%. Among the public questionnaires recovered, 163 were collected from residents, accounting for 52%, and 100 were collected from tourists, accounting for 32% (Figure 11). Additional descriptive statistics are as follows:

(1)

Age distribution. The respondents’ age distribution was wide, but the highest concentration was in the young to middle-aged group: respondents aged between 19 and 59 accounted for a large proportion (77%). Adolescents younger than 18 and respondents aged 60 years or above accounted for 11% and 12%, respectively (Figure 12).

(2)

Gender ratio: The gender ratio of the respondents was balanced, with 45% male respondents and 55% female respondents. Men and women showed similar levels of attention in rural aesthetic and construction (Figure 13).

(3)

Educational background: The respondents’ educational backgrounds were also diverse, with bachelor’s degree and college degree holders accounting for 30% and 24%, respectively. This indicated that most of the aesthetic subjects in the study had cultural literacy and could well understand and appreciate rural space. The participation of the highly educated population (master’s degree and above) may reflect these individuals’ greater concern about cultural experience and knowledge acquisition in rural space (Figure 14).

3.2.2. Demand Evaluation

The analysis of the survey results revealed a significant difference in the aesthetic frequency of material space demands. Because of its daily nature and convenience, mobile material space was generally favoured over fixed material space. The government representatives and residents showed similar aesthetic preferences regarding material space, while enterprises, planners, and tourists showed diversified aesthetic preferences (Figure 15).

There were significant differences in the frequency of the respondents’ aesthetic preferences regarding spiritual space, especially folk custom space, with the core elements of notable local figures and local culture (especially the story of Shi Jianwu). Aesthetic preferences for other types of spiritual space were balanced in frequency. The government representatives paid closest attention to the aesthetic qualities of spiritual space, followed by residents, while the aesthetic preferences of other groups were diverse (Figure 16).

Among the respondents’ aesthetic demands regarding social space, daily behaviour was more important than social interaction. There were obvious differences in the frequency of aesthetic demands regarding social space among different groups of people: residents showed the highest participation. Their active or passive aesthetic demands compelled them to participate in aesthetic activities. Government and enterprise groups were second, and planners and tourists the lowest, which may be related to their relative lack of daily contact opportunities or specific visit purposes (Figure 17).

3.2.3. Perception Evaluation

Analysis of perceptions of Dongqiao Town revealed differences in emphasis on elements of fixed and mobile material space. The respondents’ perceptions of fixed material space were relatively balanced, while perceptions of mobile material space showed clustering characteristics. Among them, the strongest perception was related to the “specialty cuisine” element, while the weakest perception was related to the “cultural and historical records” element. Despite the convergence of aesthetic perceptions between groups, the government representatives and residents generally showed stronger perceptions than the other groups (Figure 18).

The respondents’ perceptions of spiritual space focused on the stories of Shi Jianwu and Su Shi from the “notable local figures” and “local culture” elements, which played a crucial role in consolidating the people’s perceptions. The “festive activities” element was also associated with high levels of perception and influence. Comparison of group-level perceptions revealed that the government representatives, planners, and residents had stronger perceptions of spiritual space than did the other groups (Figure 19).

In the social space, the elements of “daily activities” and “production activities” were most easily experienced and perceived in everyday spaces. Compared with residents, tourists had a weaker perception of social space and the government representatives had a stronger perception; the latter may be attributable to the government’s deep involvement in policy making and rural construction management (Figure 20).

3.2.4. Satisfaction Evaluation

Among the aesthetic elements of material space, “specialty cuisine” received the highest level of satisfaction, while other elements showed significant differences in satisfaction between groups of respondents. Members of the public were less satisfied with material space elements than were the government, enterprises, and planners. This reflected group differences in aesthetic preferences, functional demands, and expectations (Figure 21).

A positive relationship was observed between satisfaction with and perceptions of spiritual space. The high satisfaction evaluation focused on the stories of Shi Jianwu and Su Shi, relating to the elements of “notable local figures” and “festival activities”. Due to differences in role positioning, interest, demands, and evaluation standards for the construction of spiritual space, government representatives, enterprises, and planners showed higher levels of satisfaction than the public (Figure 22).

Satisfaction with “daily activities” and “institutional norms” in the social space was high, reflecting the effectiveness of the construction of social space in promoting daily life experience, the formulation of village rules, and regulations and publicity. The satisfaction with other elements varied greatly between groups. Government representatives and planners showed higher levels of satisfaction than did enterprises and the public (Figure 23).

3.3. Influence of Aesthetic Subject and Object Evaluation

3.3.1. Aesthetic Object Evaluation Affects the Existence and Development of Rural Space

The evaluation of aesthetic objects was analysed (Figure 24, Figure 25 and Figure 26). The high-value areas of richness were located in Dongqiao Village, Daxi Village, and Sanxi Village, as well as the border areas of Wencun Village, Xiande Village, and Chaoku Village. The low-value areas were composed of material and social space types, which were widely distributed and numerous, with more than half consisting of a single space type, indicating limited spatial functions. Spiritual spaces were dispersed, making it challenging for villages to attract visitors with aesthetic demand for such spaces. Aggregation was particularly evident in the central areas of villages such as Dongqiao Village, Daxi and Sanxi villages, and Wencun, Xiande, and Chakou villages. Compared with those in the northeastern region, the southwestern villages exhibited a lower degree of aggregation of rural spatial elements. Dongqiao Village, Shiyang Village, Liren Village, and Daxi Village demonstrated strong transportation radiation due to their relatively flat terrain and well-developed transport infrastructure.

The presentation of aesthetic objects and the evaluation data of aesthetic subjects were compiled, and the graded data on aesthetic subject demand were matched with the corresponding aesthetic object elements. The total demand of the aesthetic subjects for the aesthetic object elements within each village was calculated. The demand data were then classified into five levels using the quantile classification method: weak (600.0–800.0), relatively weak (800.1–1400.0), moderate (1400.1–1600.0), relatively strong (1600.1–2700.0), and strong (2700.1–10,000.0). Subsequently, visual analysis was conducted (Figure 27). The results indicated that the groups with the highest levels of aesthetic demand in rural spaces were the government representatives and residents, whose frequency of aesthetic activities was higher than that of enterprises, indicating both the government’s close attention to rural space development and the central role of residents in rural aesthetic activities. Tourists exhibited a lower frequency of aesthetic activities, only about half that of residents. Regarding village distribution, Dongqiao Village and Xiande Village showed the highest levels of aesthetic demand, followed by Daxi Village and Sanxi Village; Wencun Village fell into the medium demand category; Chakou Village, Shiyang Village, and Liren Village had further reduced levels of aesthetic demand; and Fengrui Village, Yuanjia Village, and Dale Village exhibited the lowest demand. These results indicated geographic consistency between the aesthetic elements of the aesthetic object and the population’s demands regarding rural spaces, suggesting that the aggregation of aesthetic objects influences the population’s aesthetic demands.

“The construction of our village is quite good and can meet residents’ daily demands.”

(A resident of Dongqiao Village).

“I drove my child here for study-tour activities and took the opportunity to visit the scenic area. The other villages are farther away, so I did not visit them.”

(A visitor to Xiande Village).

“Some public cultural spaces, such as ancestral halls and village history museums, are left unused when there are no visitors, and residents tend to store personal items inside. Materials such as village chronicles and genealogies are kept in the history museum, but they are seldom consulted, so these places are often closed or locked, which is regrettable.”

(A government official).

The interview analysis also revealed that areas with high aesthetic demand among the population corresponded to the current foci of rural space construction. In areas with low levels of aesthetic object presentation, aesthetic elements were sparsely distributed, scattered, or difficult to access, making people unwilling to visit and participate in aesthetic activities in those areas. Furthermore, the costs of preserving and developing rural spaces in these areas were high, so the maintenance of material spaces such as remote historical buildings was often neglected. These findings indicate that the level of population aesthetic demand affects the persistence of aesthetic elements in rural spaces.

Based on this analysis, the presentation of aesthetic objects in villages within Dongqiao Town was categorised into four types. The first type covered Dongqiao Village, Daxi Village, Sanxi Village, and Xiande Village, where aesthetic resources are abundant and transportation conditions are favourable, resulting in strong demand for aesthetic activities and providing a solid foundation for village development. The second type covered Wencun Village, Chakou Village, and Fengrui Village, which also possess rich aesthetic elements but are constrained by geographic location and historical factors, limiting transportation accessibility and, consequently, village development. The third type covered Shiyang Village and Liren Village, where transportation conditions are relatively convenient but aesthetic elements are comparatively scarce, making it difficult to attract visitors with aesthetic demand. The fourth type covered Yuanjia Village and Dale Village, which are distant from the town centre and have few aesthetic elements, thus facing challenges in attracting visitors (

Table 4. Grading of aesthetic object presentation and aesthetic subject demand.

Level	Village	Characteristics
1	Dongqiao, Daxi, Sanxi, Xiande	Aesthetic elements are abundant and clustered, transportation is strongly radiative, and aesthetic demand is strong.
2	Wencun, Chakou, Fengrui	Aesthetic elements are abundant and clustered, transportation is weakly radiative, and aesthetic demand is weak.
3	Shiyang, Liren	Aesthetic elements are scarce or dispersed, transportation is strongly radiative, and aesthetic demand is weak.
4	Yuanjia, Dale	Aesthetic elements are scarce or dispersed, transportation is weakly radiative, and aesthetic demand is weak.

). In summary, the richness, aggregation, and radiation of aesthetic elements in rural spaces are influenced by the current distribution and development of aesthetic objects and, in turn, affect the development of rural spaces.

3.3.2. Influence of Aesthetic Subject Evaluation on Construction of Rural Cultural Space

The evaluation data of the aesthetic subjects for each village were analysed, and a 3D scatter plot was constructed using Origin 2022 software (Figure 28). The results showed that aesthetic evaluations in Dongqiao Village were significantly higher than in other villages, highlighting its advantageous position in rural space planning and development. The evaluation data for the other 10 villages were further visualised separately. By calculating the average values along each axis, the scatter plot was divided into eight regions to characterise the distribution of aesthetic evaluations across villages. Shiyang Village, Chakou Village, Liren Village, Fengrui Village, Yuanjia Village, and Dale Village fell within the low-demand, low-perception, low-satisfaction region. Wencun Village and Daxi Village for enterprise and tourist groups, as well as Sanxi Village and Xiande Village for tourist groups, fell within the low-demand, high-perception, high-satisfaction region. The overall population of Dongqiao Village, government representatives, enterprise representatives, and resident groups in Sanxi Village and Xiande Village, and government and resident groups in Wencun Village and Daxi Village fell within the high-demand, high-perception, high-satisfaction region (

Table 5. Grading of aesthetic subject evaluation of villages in Dongqiao town.

Village (Aesthetic Subject)	Characteristics
Dongqiao (government, enterprises, residents and tourists), Sanxi (government, enterprises, and residents), Xiande (government, enterprises, and residents), Daxi (government, residents) and Wencun (government, residents)	High demand, high perception, and high satisfaction.
Sanxi (tourists), Xiande (tourists), Daxi (enterprises and tourists), Wencun (enterprises and tourists)	Low demand, high perception, and high satisfaction.
Shiyang, Chakou, Liren, Fengrui, Yuanjia, Dale (government, enterprises, residents, tourists)	Low demand, low perception, and low satisfaction.

). Satisfaction levels across villages exhibited a stepped distribution. These results revealed an imbalance in aesthetic satisfaction among villages in Dongqiao Town.

Comparing the geographical spatial distribution of the aesthetic subjects’ satisfaction with those of their demand and perceptions revealed that the evaluations in Dongqiao, Xiande, Sanxi, and Wencun villages, as well as Fengrui, Yuanjia, and Dale villages, were consistent with their aesthetic resource allocation. Notably, Daxi Village, as the geographical centre of Dongqiao Town, was found to possess abundant aesthetic resources and convenient transportation, yet its satisfaction level was lower than those of Dongqiao, Xiande, and Sanxi villages. Chankou Village featured a high aggregation of aesthetic resources and a clear development theme, but its level of satisfaction remained relatively low. Although Shiyang Village had fewer aesthetic resources, its strategic location as a hub between Dongqiao and Daxi villages contributed to a higher level of satisfaction. These findings indicate that in certain villages, current policy support and resource allocation do not align with the satisfaction levels of aesthetic subjects.

In the analysis of aesthetic subject evaluations across different groups, residents exhibited the highest level of demand, yet their levels of perception and satisfaction remained relatively low. The government demonstrated higher levels of both perception and satisfaction. Enterprise representatives presented a moderate overall evaluation without a clear inclination, and they showed lower levels of demand and satisfaction than the other groups. These findings indicate that the enhancement of rural space still holds potential, particularly in improving satisfaction among the general public.

“The preferences of residents and tourists are different. Residents would like their houses and communities to be more modern, while tourists prefer traditional characteristics.”

(A planner).

“The Tang Dynasty-style street was originally built for residents to open restaurants and supermarkets to attract tourists. However, many shops are now hardware stores or electric vehicle repair shops, which are not very appealing for visitors.”

(A staff member of an enterprise)

“Most of our hotel guests are self-driving tourists. They usually stay for one or two days, eating and lodging in the hotel, while visiting nearby attractions or experiencing rural life.”

(A staff member of an enterprise)

“I had long heard about Wencun Village, planned and designed by Master Wang Shu, and came here from Fuyang by taxi to visit. However, there are few restaurants, no public transportation, and it is not convenient to get a taxi back, which makes it rather difficult to return.”

(A visitor to Wencun Village)

Field investigations and interviews revealed that due to differences in demand among different groups, rural space development in Dongqiao Town faces challenges in simultaneously meeting the expectations of both residents and tourists, leading to discrepancies between planned functional positioning and actual operation. While infrastructure and supporting services are sufficient to meet residents’ daily demand, they fall short of addressing tourists’ demands regarding tourism and leisure. Such demand mismatches lead to a decline in satisfaction for one group, thereby constraining the effectiveness of rural spatial planning and development.

3.3.3. Multiple Factors Affecting Evaluation of Aesthetic Subjects and Objects

The historical evolution of Dongqiao Town has significantly influenced the current presentation of aesthetic objects and the evaluation of aesthetic subjects. According to records from the Dongqiao Town History Museum, during the 1950s and 1960s, the 11 villages of Dongqiao Town were administered under three different communes. In May 1992, after undergoing several rounds of administrative and institutional restructuring, Dongqiao, Sanxi, and Xiande townships were merged to form Dongqiao Town. These historical divisions have not only shaped the material foundations for the construction of aesthetic objects but also contributed to the spatial identity of aesthetic subjects. At present, the “Plan for the Dongqiao Unit of Fuyang District, Hangzhou” [36] divides Dongqiao Town into three functional zones: a comprehensive town centre with Dongqiao Village as its core, a cultural tourism zone centred on Wencun and Xiande villages, and a rural tourism zone centred on Sanxi Village, thereby establishing a coordinated development pattern with distinct thematic orientations (Figure 29).

“Xiande Village is not in the same administrative area as our Dongqiao Village. They have quite a lot of activities over there nowadays, and we sometimes join in just for the fun of it.”

(A resident of Dongqiao Village)

“Fengrui Village is far from here, but we have to pass through it on the way to Xindeng Town.”

(A resident of Wencun Village)

The current trend of coordinated regional development, along with the improvement of transportation networks, has enhanced the interaction between the villages of Dongqiao Town and neighbouring towns and villages. However, some remote villages, being geographically closer to adjacent towns yet farther from the town centre, have reduced their connections with certain villages within Dongqiao Town. This spatial divergence has led to differences in cultural identity among aesthetic subjects.

The data on the perceptions of aesthetic subjects were mapped onto aesthetic element points in geographical space, and the cumulative perception values for aesthetic elements in each village were calculated. Using the quantile classification method, the results were categorised into five levels: weak (800.0–1100.0), relatively weak (1100.1–2000.0), moderate (2000.1–2200.0), relatively strong (2200.1–3600.0), and strong (3600.1–15,000.0) (Figure 30). The results showed consistency between aesthetic demands and perceptions, conforming to the action logic of “spatial presentation—image formation” of aesthetic subjects. This also indicates that the presentation level of aesthetic objects influences the understanding and identification of aesthetic subjects. Within the same village, the perceptions of different aesthetic subjects were highly consistent, confirming the role of Dongqiao Town in shaping rural space and transmitting its cultural significance.

In terms of the distribution of villages, Dongqiao Village, Xiande Village, and Sanxi Village showed the strongest respondent perceptions, consistent with the core areas of the three major planning zones. Specifically, the Xiande zone stood out, with strong perceptions of spiritual space and relatively balanced perceptions of material space, consistent with its orientation toward cultural tourism development. In contrast, the Dongqiao zone (excluding Dongqiao Village) and the Sanxi zone showed relatively weak levels of perception among aesthetic subjects and thus require further improvement in this area. The perception of social space in all villages in Dongqiao Town, except for Chako Village, was generally stronger than that of material or spiritual space, indicating the emergence of new industries and social relations within material space in this region. These findings provide support for the sustainable development of rural areas (Figure 31).

4. Optimisation of Planning Strategy

4.1. Aesthetic Object: Regional Coordination and Resource Integration

4.1.1. Regional Dimension: Stratified Planning and Benchmark-Oriented Construction

In terms of planning layout, Dongqiao Town is divided into three zones centred around Dongqiao Village, Xiande Village, and Sanxi Village. Each zone has its own cultural and tourism resources as well as geographical advantages, with clear positioning and efforts made to highlight its unique features. Based on this, cooperation among the three areas can be strengthened. Through resource integration and optimised allocation, regional coordinated development can be achieved. For example, Zhakou Village’s educational camp can be integrated with the agricultural base of Sanxi Village and the cultural scenic resources of Xiande Village to build a model integrating the functions of educational experience, agricultural sightseeing, and cultural tourism and realise the symbiosis of business forms between zones. In addition, Dongqiao Village, Fengrui Village, Chakou Village, and Dale Village are connected with the surrounding towns. They are crucial for promoting the coordinated development of Dongqiao Town and the surrounding areas. Strengthening resource sharing and industrial collaboration between these villages and the surrounding regions can provide support for the rural revitalisation and regional integrated development of Dongqiao Town and the broader area.

According to the grading of the evaluation of rural aesthetic subjects, a progressive rural space construction system from low to high can be established (Figure 32).

As an administrative centre, Dongqiao Village has significant advantages, notably rich aesthetic elements, convenient transportation, and frequent daily interaction with Wan Town and Fuyang District. Xiande Village and Sanxi Village, which are both graded at a high level, should take Dongqiao Village as a benchmark and rely on resource advantages such as cultural scenic spots and wetland parks to promote the construction of other villages in the zone. For Daxi, Wencun, and Shiyang villages, which are in the middle grade, Xiande and Sanxi villages should be taken as the construction standards. Geographically, Shiyang Village and Daxi Village are located between Dongqiao Village and Xiande Village and between Sanxi Village and Xiande Village, respectively, with significant advantages in traffic radiation. Therefore, integration with the functions of surrounding villages, along with the improvement of supporting facilities such as transportation, dining, and accommodation, should be pursued to create a complementary system. Wencun Village should leverage its unique architectural features, draw on the successful experience of Xiande Village to attract external investment, and simultaneously guide residents’ operations to address the issues of limited business diversity and insufficient spatial vitality. The lower-grade Chaikou village, Liren Village, Fenrui Village, Dale Village, and Yuanjia Village should aim to reach the level of middle-grade villages. Considering their remote locations and limited business diversity, these villages should focus on developing their own industries or coordinating with surrounding villages to mitigate transportation disadvantages.

4.1.2. Village Dimension: Enrichment and Refinement of Spatial Types

As the village with the most comprehensive aesthetic elements, Dongqiao Village should make use of its advantages of modern settlements and streets, buildings and structures, and spiritual space and social space resources. Optimising the town government, village history museum, primary school, and other material spaces can enhance its influence as a rural administrative centre. Relying on cultural and creative bases and commercial facilities such as restaurants and shops, cultural and creative industries should be integrated with commercial services to form characteristic industries. Xiande Village and Daxi Village are characterised by ancient settlements, streets, buildings, and structures. Festival activities and notable local figures are prominent elements of spiritual space, and crowd interaction is a major element of social space. Therefore, the cultural connotations of the two villages should be explored, continuing to build representative material spaces such as cultural scenic spots, aesthetic research bases, and Dawu ancient villages, promote the integration of agriculture, culture and tourism industries, and enhance people’s cultural identity and cohesion. In Sanxi Village, the natural environment, settlements, and streets are the main material space types, and attention should be paid to the village’s ecological advantages. By building and maintaining natural landscapes such as wetland parks, environmental quality can be improved. At the same time, conducting local education in spaces like educational camps can make rural spaces unique and attractive. For villages with outstanding aesthetic elements, efforts should be made to enhance their connections with surrounding elements and form clusters of aesthetic elements. This will facilitate the holistic and well-integrated development of rural space.

The rural spaces of Wencun Village and Chakou Village have distinct thematic focuses but are unevenly developed. Wencun Village should continue to strengthen its advantages in settlements, streets, and buildings and other structures and enhance the protection and utilisation of traditional craft workshops and other spatial carriers. Historic buildings should be protected in different ways. Chakou Village should take its educational camp as the core space, pay attention to the construction of supporting facilities in the camp, and avoid the homogenisation caused by the over-development of a single space. The spatial types of Liren Village and Shiyang Village are relatively homogenous. Building on the rural environment represented by Azalea Scenic Area and Torreya Park, Liren Village can further enhance its attractiveness by building exhibition halls and holding folk activities, combined with agricultural, forestry, and machinery production and management activities. The spatial types of Shiyang Village are relatively sparse. Here, Bidong Mountain should be taken as the representative of material and spiritual space, and residents should be encouraged to innovate in production and management. For Yuanjia Village, Fengrui Village, and Dale Village, which are remote and have few aesthetic elements, representative spaces such as Tianyun Mountain and the village’s agricultural park should be combined with natural landscape and human resources to form characteristic tourism routes. For such villages, residents should be encouraged to participate in the protection and utilisation of rural space, infrastructure construction, and functional improvement. The balanced development of rural areas should be promoted through tailored policies (Figure 33).

4.2. Aesthetic Subject: Multi-Subject Participation and Dynamic Regulation

4.2.1. Population Dimension: Implementing Dynamic Evaluation and Regulation of Aesthetic Subjects and Objects

Regarding the planning and construction of rural space, people’s participation in aesthetic activities and evaluation criteria show dynamic changes. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a continuous evaluation and monitoring mechanism for aesthetic subjects, collect and analyse information on aesthetic subjects’ evaluation, and adjust the spatial layout, functional setting, and other aspects in a targeted manner to maximise the effectiveness of rural construction (Figure 34).

In terms of people’s participation in construction, residents participate more and tourists participate less. Therefore, in the construction stage, the government and planners should take residents as the core demand group and first consider meeting their aesthetic and daily life demands. In the focal region, residents’ business model is mainly that of independent operation, covering agricultural planting, agricultural product sales, small-scale catering, and machinery and vehicle maintenance. Shops and other small businesses are set up in a disorderly way. The government should adjust the area of operation according to residents’ actual situation, as well as operation type, scale, and demand, and guide the residents to operate their businesses in an orderly manner. At the same time, by providing policy support and skills training, residents can be encouraged to expand business forms, such as introducing cultural and creative products and carrying out rural tourism experience projects.

After stabilising aesthetic activities at an early stage, the focus should shift toward enhancing visitor experiences and expanding public participation. The government, enterprises, and residents should jointly advance the construction of spiritual spaces while optimising the quality of material spaces. During this phase, planners should gradually withdraw, leaving enterprises and residents to assume greater responsibility as their aesthetic awareness and capacity for action grow. Meanwhile, the government and enterprises should prioritise the improvement of infrastructure and supporting services—for instance, by establishing visitor centres, upgrading transportation networks, and improving sanitation standards—to provide a more convenient and comfortable environment. Residents should be encouraged to remain actively engaged, strengthening the management, maintenance, and daily oversight of rural spaces. Visitors’ participation in activities and feedback mechanisms can further enrich social interactions, fostering sustainable and vital rural spaces.

Once the construction of rural cultural spaces reaches a relatively mature stage, the government should intensify its efforts to promote and maintain both material and spiritual spaces, while encouraging enterprises and residents to participate in the development of social spaces. Given that the majority of visitors are self-driving tourists, local businesses could expand their operations in alignment with current resident-led practices—for example, by offering car rental services or installing charging facilities for new energy vehicles—to better meet tourist demand and broaden the visitor market.

4.2.2. Village Dimension: Identifying Target Group Demands and Undertaking Targeted Development

At present, the government, enterprises, and the public in Dongqiao Village all demonstrate high levels of demand, perception, and satisfaction. As the core aesthetic subjects, they maintain high standards for and expectations of the aesthetic environment of Dongqiao Village. In view of this, it is necessary to make sustained efforts to protect and improve the aesthetic environment of Dongqiao Village to ensure that the demands of the subjects with high evaluation are met into the future. The government, enterprises, and the public should be encouraged to actively participate in rural aesthetic construction. In contrast with Dongqiao Village, the main aesthetic subjects of Sanxi Village and Xiande Village are the government, enterprises, and residents; tourists have relatively limited aesthetic demands. Therefore, priority here should be given to meeting the demands of enterprises and residents, adding commercial and public facilities, strengthening greening and beautification, and improving villages’ aesthetic quality. Subsequently, by holding traditional activities, improving service quality, and other means, tourists can be attracted to participate in aesthetic activities, thus expanding the audience scope of aesthetic activities and enhancing the villages’ popularity and influence. In Daxi Village and Wencun Village, the government and residents are the main aesthetic subjects. The government here needs to improve the infrastructure and supporting facilities, attract enterprises to settle in by implementing relevant convenient policies, and enhance the economic vitality and aesthetic diversity of the villages. At the same time, the participation and satisfaction of tourists should be enhanced by creating characteristic tourism projects and improving service facilities. For villages such as Shiyang Village, Cha Kou Village, Li Ren Village, Feng Rui Village, and Dalu Village, which received low evaluations in the present study, the top priority is to improve infrastructure and public services and enhance residents’ quality of life. On this basis, the unique resources of the villages, such as natural scenery and cultural heritage, should be identified, and distinctive brands should be created to attract external attention and investment.

5. Conclusions

To date, planning research with an aesthetic perspective has focused on urban spaces; less attention has been paid to rural spaces. Filling this gap, the present study selected 11 villages under the jurisdiction of Dongqiao Town as the empirical research objects and evaluated them from the perspectives of aesthetic subject and object. This research provides an evaluation tool grounded in public aesthetic experience for spatial planning and quality enhancement. By integrating subjective and objective data, the explanatory power of the evaluation is strengthened.

The results showed that the 11 villages in Dongqiao Town have their own advantages and challenges in terms of planning and construction and people’s aesthetic activities. Based on the results, the study recommends pursuing both the villages’ independent development and their joint cooperation. The proposed model can be applied to similar rural contexts to identify aesthetic deficiencies, guide landscape optimization strategies, and improve public participation in rural revitalization, thereby supporting rural planning and policy-making.

This research was limited in its ability to obtain POI data and use of population evaluation data, which may have led to deviation from the actual situation. For example, the accuracy of POI data is subject to the map update cycle and accuracy, and respondents’ evaluations are subjective, based on their cultural backgrounds and personal emotions. Although a combined qualitative and quantitative approach was adopted to optimise the evaluation process, the results may still have been affected by subjectivity and ambiguity. Future research should expand cross-regional comparative studies to verify the model’s transferability and refine data acquisition approaches. Incorporating dynamic aesthetic feedback from engineering practice will further support long-term spatial monitoring and model advancement.