A Study on the Evolution of Lightscapes in the Beijing Road Historic and Cultural Zone, Guangzhou, China

Abstract

With a history spanning over two thousand years, the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone marks the origin of Guangzhou’s traditional central axis and serves as one of the earliest commercial centers in the Lingnan region, characterized by a rich historical and cultural heritage and unique Lingnan features. Through a combination of literature collection and review, field observation, and photographic documentation, the research examines the historical natural, artificial, and folk lightscapes of the Beijing Road zone, highlighting the diversity of its lightscape features from past to present. As the city developed and modern technology advanced, the representative lightscapes in the Beijing Road zone have evolved from traditional forms to modern expressions, including 3D projection, multimedia interaction, and LED lighting. These advancements breathe new life into the pedestrian street and enhance its cultural significance within the contemporary commercial environment. By comparing the characteristics and categories of historical and contemporary lightscapes, the paper reveals the transformation of historical lightscapes, the innovation in modern lightscape techniques, and the remnants of vanished lightscapes. It also proposes strategies for the restoration and preservation of historical lightscapes, the innovation and integration of contemporary lightscapes, and the development of sustainable lighting design, while it discusses the direction of work for future research. It underscores the need for further protection and optimization of lightscape resources in the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone, to enhance cultural heritage and commercial appeal, providing valuable insights for the preservation of historic zones and the development of cultural tourism in Guangzhou and the Lingnan region.

1. Introduction

The concept of “Lightscape” was put forward by Chinese scholar academician Wu Shuoxian, who also advocated for “Lightscape” as a new discipline to parallel the “Soundscape” and “Smellscape” [1]. As a kind of particular visual landscape, lightscape refers to the landscape which is mainly composed of light, shadow, and their changes, which cause a strong visual impression, including two types of natural lightscape and artificial lightscape, as well as the composite lightscape of both [2]. Lightscape pays attention to the role of human sociality, behavior and environmental psychology, and pays attention to human subjective perception and feelings. At present, insubstantial scenes, including soundscape and smellscape, have gradually played a role in improving the living environment [3,4,5,6], Against a background of vigorously advocating the construction of ecological and healthy cities [7], which speeds up the research on another important insubstantial scene in the “Three-scape”, the lightscape is of great significance to the construction of a beautiful living environment and the further improvement of people’s well-being [8,9].

Guangzhou showcases a variety of lightscapes across different urban spaces. In its urban squares, Flower City Square offers a multi-sensory experience by synchronizing music with light fountains. In its Lingnan public gardens, Liwan Lake Park creates a lightscape rich in local cultural character by combining water features and courtyard vignettes. In media architecture, the dynamic artistic lighting on the building façades along the Pearl River crafts a modern urban night lightscape. While existing research has explored the lightscape characteristics of these spatial types and established a theoretical basis, the studies on historic and cultural zones remain limited and require systematic attention.

The State Council announced Guangzhou as one of the first batch of national famous historical and cultural cities. The city holds the reputation of “millennium commercial capital.” Shops first appeared in Guangzhou’s urban zone during the Tang Dynasty (618–907). Development throughout the Song and Ming Dynasties (960–1644) resulted in the formation of a commercial center; this center, with Beijing Road at its core, was established in the late Qing Dynasty (1840–1912). The Beijing Road historic and cultural zone (Figure 1) is traversed by both ancient and modern urban axes of Guangzhou. Defining its boundaries, the zone reaches Guangwei Road to the north. To the south, it extends to Wenming Road and Yanjiang Road in the middle. Its eastern limit is West Fuxue Street, while Guangzhou Qiyi Road marks its western extent. Land use in this zone primarily serves commercial, cultural, and entertainment purposes. Currently, this zone remains one of the most prosperous commercial historic and cultural zones in Guangzhou, representing both cultural and economic aspects. As a typical representation of Guangzhou’s historic and cultural zones, the numerous waterways on Beijing Road produce a rich natural lightscape. Meanwhile, its vibrant night market culture has given rise to the use of many lamps with local characteristics. Moreover, as a historic public entertainment hub, the Beijing Road area hosts its own folk activities, such as the Spring Festival Flower Market and the Guangfu Temple Fair. This combination of beautiful natural scenery, active commercial culture, and folk activities provides rich resources for its lightscape, making the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone an ideal case for applying lightscape theory.

2. Historical Lightscape and Construction Characteristics of the Beijing Road Historic and Cultural Zone

For over two millennium, Beijing Road, as the consistent “origin” of urban development in Guangzhou [10], has developed abundant and profound historical and cultural deposits. The unique character of Beijing Road has inspired literati and artists throughout history, from ancient times to the present. This inspiration has resulted in a remarkable collection of themed poems, travel notes, paintings, and photographic works. The term “historical lightscape,” as used in this paper, denotes the lightscapes that existed in the past. These lightscapes also reflect particular social and historical importance. An in-depth analysis of ancient documents, classics, and poems forms the basis for classification in this paper. The “historical lightscape” of the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone is categorized into three types: natural, artificial, and folk lightscapes.

2.1. Natural Lightscape

The rich natural lightscape of the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone is a product of its exceptional geographic environment. A natural lightscape is defined as a lightscape primarily created by natural light sources under specific environments or conditions [1]. The geographical location of Beijing Road is unique where Yuexiu Hill, Guangzhou’s main mountain range for millennia, lies to the north; the Pearl River, the city’s principal water vein, is situated to the south. Historically, extensive water networks defined Guangzhou’s landscape. The area’s abundant natural environment has, since antiquity, been the source of diverse natural lightscapes. The key historical natural lightscapes observed in this area consist of several phenomena. These include waterscapes, ship shadows, smoke and water vapor, mirages, lightscapes produced by the sun and moon [11,12], and the reflections from buildings (Figure 2).

2.1.1. The Pearl River in the Area of Tianzi Wharf

During the Song Dynasty (960–1276), the Pearl River was vast, with its surface swelling to a width of nearly ten li due to the shifting tides. Volume II of Ping Zhou Ke Tan records: “the boating Pavilion in Guangzhou stood waterfront at Haishan Tower, facing the five continents, and beneath it lay what was called the little sea.” [14]. A westward to eastward course characterizes the Pearl River’s flow through Guangzhou’s urban area. Picturesque scenery lines both banks of the river. This scenic beauty, enhanced by the glistening wave light visible across different seasons and times of day, has drawn innumerable tourists from antiquity to modern times. The natural lightscape of the Pearl River is depicted in the Zhuzhi ci Poems of Guangzhou: “a river encircles both county and city complete, and the Pearl floats in the blue sea and the moon is clear”. Constructed in the late Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), Tianzi Wharf connects the Beijing Road area and the Pearl River, while also acting as a popular location for observing the river’s lightscape. Numerous old photographs and paintings (Figure 3) depict the sparkling surface of the Pearl River. These images also exhibit sails leisurely navigating around Tianzi Wharf. This combination, along with the surrounding landscape, creates a harmonious “Water–Lightscape,” which aligns with the symbolism in Guangdong folk customs (Guangdong folk customs symbolize “Water means fortune”).

2.1.2. Haishan Tower

Haishan Tower, a celebrated landmark of old Beijing Road, was built by the Pearl River during the Jiayou era (1056–1063) of Song Dynasty, standing outside Zhennan Gate (at the modern intersection of Beijing Road and Danan Road) [17]. From Haishan Tower, observers could also appreciate the natural lightscape of the Pearl River. In Yu Di Ji Sheng, Xiangzhi Wang of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279) recorded the following: “the Haishan Tower stands in the south of Guangzhou city, commanding vistas of thousands of li, a renowned spot for ascending to view the scenery” [18]. Haishan Tower exhibited a mirage-like beauty when spring fog diffused. During thunderstorms, its appearance resembled Penglai Pavilion from a tumultuous sea [19].”Xiao Ji (morning clarity)” particularly accentuated the beauty of Haishan Tower. The expansive water surface of the Pearl River, a brilliant sky, and the natural lightscape created by the relationship of water, gas, and fog were exceptionally beautiful at dawn or following rain [20]. This spectacle constituted one of the renowned Eight Ancient Scenic Spots of Yangcheng (Guangzhou) during the Song Dynasty (960–1276), known as “Hai Shan Xiao Ji (morning clarity in Haishan Tower)” (Figure 4) [21,22]. The Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127) poet Qufei Chen, in his work climbing the mountain tower described the scene: “ten thousand sails such as owls take wing, waters void as emptiness. Earthly paths stretch boundlessly wide, and spring seas spread in misty haze. Immortals would speak with mortals here, and mountains lush at twilight hour. Clear seas show no phantom towers, mountains stand firm as Penglai’s halls.” Then, he composed the poem Ode to the Haishan tower in the rain: “A railing of hundred-foot stands by the seaside shore, lifelong aspirations tower high as mountain peaks. The reflection of the sky on the shore came in with the tide, and the view of spring upstairs came with the rain”.

Building pavilions near the sea to observe the tide and the moon was a common practice for merchants and literati in ancient times. A prime illustration of this practice is Haishan Tower [23]. Beyond viewing “Hai Shan Xiao Ji,” Haishan Tower frequently served another purpose. Literati and optimized scholars utilized it as a venue for watching the tide, admiring the moon, reciting poems, composing essays, and hosting banquets and gatherings on ordinary days. Activities such as ascending the tower to watch the tide, holding banquets to listen to waves, or enjoying the moon with wine resulted in a unique sensory experience. The sound of the tide, combined with moonlight and water light, created a natural beauty integrating soundscape and lightscape.

Figure 4. “Hai Shan Xiao Ji” (morning clarity in Haishan Tower) (source: [24]).

Figure 4. “Hai Shan Xiao Ji” (morning clarity in Haishan Tower) (source: [24]).

The military commissioner and pacification commissioner conducted naval inspections from Haishan Tower on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month. Song Dynasty (960–1276) military ships sailed on the Pearl River’s vast expanse. Their flags fluttered and swords reflected the sun [19]. Meanwhile, background sunlight cast a golden glow upon the river. The relationship of the waves with the ship shadows created a multi-level natural lightscape. This formation offered a grand and magnificent spectacle for the inspection.

Haishan Tower was destroyed by war in the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) and no longer exists today.

2.1.3. Taiping Yanhu (A Scenic Beauty)

Five interconnected mounds of sandbanks (today’s Taipingsha) were situated along the route from Tianzi Wharf to Haishan Tower between the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1912). The scenic beauty of cooking smoke rising from both sides of the Pearl River amid the sunset glow near the sandbank area captivated Gongyin Chen, a Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) scholar.He titled this scene “Taiping Yanhu”.

Taipingsha (sandbars) formerly featured various structures, including pavilions, terraces, and open halls. Examples of these include Liu Hall, Xiuhai Tower, Lubo Tower, Zheyue Tower, Shuiming Tower, Yanzhu Tower, Yanhu Tower, and Yuexue Mansion [25]. The majority of these pavilions and towers were constructed admcent to the water. This placement, in conjunction with the surrounding environment, generated a natural lightscape with unique humanistic charm. Such lightscapes are featured in the poems and essays of preceding dynasties.

Zihu Li’s Manxing liushou describes the environs of Liu Hall: “after rain the pond waters turn cool, red lotus scents the white lotus blooms. The pond is surrounded by lotus leaves, and a sand gull dances against the setting sun, breaking the tranquility of the pond water. Pond waters illuminate the dawn-lit trees, and flower vendors stand in the rain. Moon rises from deep forest groves at dusk, watching blossoms, and sitting on fishing rocks all day”. This passage illustrates an integration of lightscape, soundscape, and smellscape.

The creation of scenery at Xiuhai Tower, Lubo Tower, and Zhuyue Tower involved the use of mirror image methods. A Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) poem of Xiuhai Tower by Zhang Weiping states: “the tower in the painting gets the moon first, and the curtain in the mirror skillfully hides flowers” [26]. Mirrors reflecting the river sail were a feature of the Lubo Tower. Double mirrors were installed in the Zhuyue Tower, designed to reflect the external scenery. These three structures effectively utilized mirrors; they achieved this by capturing the river scene beyond the building in their reflections.

Taipingsha was integrated with the land on the Pearl River’s north bank towards the close of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). A street bearing the name “Taipingsha” continues to exist in that location.

2.1.4. West Lake and Yaozhou (An Islet)

The excavation of West Lake occurred in the Southern Han Dynasty (917–971), when it was established as the Southern Palace Garden. At that time, this constituted a large artificial garden project. Extending in a long north–south configuration, the lake area followed today’s Jiaoyu Road. Its northern limit was the western section of Yuehua Road, while Xianhu Street marked its southern boundary. Anciently, West Lake presented an open surface where water and sky merged without distinction. The presence of an islet in the lake, cultivated with Hongyao (the red peony flower), resulted in its designation as “Yaozhou.” Historical records indicate the abundance of orioles at Huangli Harbor (today’s Huangni Lane) situated along the lakeshore [26]. Willows adorned both banks, complemented by the fragrance of flowers and the shadows of lotuses. In this setting, the melodious songs of orioles contributed to a multisensory experience. This experience represented a perfect harmony of lightscape, soundscape, and smellscape.

During the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127), the beautiful scenery of West Lake and Yaozhou became an attraction for numerous literati and scholars. Therefore, they left behind many poems and inscriptions that described the natural lightscape. An example is Fu Mi, who was a calligrapher, painter, and poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127). He inscribed the title Jiuyao Stone on the Xianzhang stone with the words: “Mirage appears in the blue sea, and summer clouds rise in the blue sky.” This inscription depicts the mirage lightscape observed on Yaozhou’s water surface. Another instance is from Yanxian Xu of the Song Dynasty (960–1276), who composed a poem on the Jiuyao Stone in Yaozhou. The poem reads: “the anthers suffuse the sea island, cloud shadows in the water flow with the current of sand.” The poem describes the diffuse smoke on Yaozhou’s water surface. This smoke, in combination with cloud shadows, wave light, and quicksand in the water, formed a hazy and dynamic natural lightscape. In his work Duyou Yaozhou Huai Yingshu Xiuzhuan, Xiangzheng Guo of the Song Dynasty (960–1276) recorded the observation: “The domineering spirit of the lake dissipated, and the solitary smoke floated in the sunset.” This description portrays the natural lightscape of Yaozhou at sunset. The tranquility associated with the rising solitary smoke also carried a somewhat sad quality.

“The Spring Sunrise of Yaozhou” was recognized as one of the Eight Ancient Scenic Spots of Yangcheng (Guangzhou) during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) (Figure 5) [20]. Afterwards, West Lake gradually disappeared. Currently, only remnants such as the names West Lake Road and Xianhu Street, along with the ruins of Nine Star Garden, offer clues to its existence.

2.1.5. Summary of Natural Lightscape

The diverse natural lightscapes along Beijing Road have undergone changes in types and distributions over different dynasties (

Table 1. Natural lightscape dynasty and location.

Dynasty	Natural Lightscape	Location
Southern Han Dynasty (917–971)	The water and sky merged without distinction, floral fragrance and lotus shadow	West Lake, Yaozhou (an islet)
Song Dynasty (960–1276)	“Mirage appears in the blue sea, and summer clouds rise in the blue sky” “The anthers suffuse the sea island, cloud shadows in the water flow with the current of sand” “The solitary smoke floated in the sunset”	West Lake, Yaozhou (an islet)
	“Hai Shan Xiao Ji (morning clarity in Haishan Tower)” “Spring seas spread in misty haze” “The reflection of the sky on the shore came in with the tide”	Haishan Tower
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)	“The Spring Sunrise of Yaozhou”	Yaozhou (an islet)
	The sparkling surface of the Pearl River	Tianzi Wharf
Qing Dynasty (1644–1912)	Water vapor permeates the sandbars Liu Hall: “Pond waters illuminate the dawn-lit trees” Xiuhai Tower: “The tower in the painting gets the moon first” Lubo Tower has mirrors reflecting the river sail	Taiping Yanhu area (Sandbar)

, Figure 6). Among them, there are natural lightscapes that incorporate multi-dimensional perceptual elements such as soundscapes and smellscapes, with a developmental trajectory spanning from the Southern Han Dynasty (917–971) to the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing Dynasties (1644–1912). Although some lightscapes like "Hai Shan Xiao Ji," "Taiping Yanhu," and "The Spring Sunrise of Yaozhou" have now faded away, their lightscape imagery still survives through literature, poetry, and place names, providing historical evidence for interpreting the natural lightscapes of Beijing Road.

2.2. Artificial Lightscape

The term artificial lightscape denotes lightscapes primarily created by artificial light sources (candles, torches, lamps, fireworks, etc.) and the changes these sources produce [1]. The historical artificial lightscape on Beijing Road comprised several components. They included the lightscapes produced by lanterns, lamps, and general lighting associated with the commercial market. Additional sources were academy buildings, their related activities, and official activities.

2.2.1. Jasmine Lantern

Jasmine flower (Figure 7), a traditional flower that once flourished throughout Guangzhou, is a small white blossom celebrated for its springtime fragrance and also referred to as “Jade Hibiscus” [28]. These flowers thrive in southern climates. Guangzhou Henan (now the Haizhu District on the South Bank of the Pearl River) gained fame for its jasmine cultivation during the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties (1628–1700). Every morning, florists picked jasmine flowers. These flowers were then transported from the Pearl River’s south bank to seven northern city gates for commercial sale [29]. The tradition of stringing freshly picked jasmine flower quilts into fragrant ornaments dates back to the Southern Han Dynasty (917–971). This practice established a dressing fashion in ancient southern Guangdong, which is known as “colorful thread wearing flowers” and “flower comb hairpin wearing.” Reports from the late Ming Dynasty (1573–1644) in Guangzhou indicate the presence of “hundreds of people making lanterns, flower strings, and ornaments.” This activity centered on the flower market near South Gate (now the junction of Beijing Road and Danan Road) [30].

The combination of jasmine flowers with exquisite lamps frequently resulted in the creation of jasmine lanterns. These lanterns determined widespread application in numerous settings. One source notes their versatility: “Flowers are also suitable for making lamps, carving jade and ice, exquisite and radiant in all directions, which can be utilized by tourists to guide cars and horses” [30]. In practice, individuals undertaking nighttime sightseeing would hang jasmine lanterns, with lights flashing inside, in front of their cars and horses. An intensified floral fragrance resulted from the candles’ heat, hence cars and horses would spread this scent along their path. This observation demonstrates the intertwining of the artificial lightscape from jasmine lanterns with the smellscape. Collectively, they produced a flowing sensory picture. Another described use states, “When a HuoqingJiao festival is held in autumn and winter, myriad households hang jasmine lanterns shaped as dragons. These may also serve as tassels, with flowing ribbons luxuriant and hibiscus adorning the deity” [30]. Thousands of jasmine lanterns, varying in shape, were displayed under rows of eaves. In addition, jasmine lanterns adorned flower boats. For instance, “On the night of Qixi Festival in Guangzhou, numerous jasmine flower boats are employed to cruise through Haizhu, Xihao and Xiangpu” [30].

The demand for Jasminum flowers decreased towards the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) following the introduction of exotic flowers. Their gradual disappearance by the 1950s was further accelerated by the destruction of flower fields due to urban development. Efforts to reintroduce jasmine flowers have occurred since 2011. Haizhu District in Guangzhou has facilitated the introduction of fragmentary, self-supporting jasmine plants from Zhuangtou village residents into Zhuangtou Park.

2.2.2. Shop Lamps and Lanterns

During the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), Guangzhou thrived as a commercial hub, where lamps and lanterns played a crucial role in enhancing the commercial lightscape atmosphere. A rich variety of lantern styles existed. For instance, foreign painting shops featured exquisite and unique glass lamps. In comparison, the “Xinsheng” lantern shop displayed an abundance of round and cylindrical lanterns (Figure 8).

The work Walks in the City of Canton recorded how the profusion of lamps and lanterns in the Beijing Road’s business center, along with their illumination, highlighted the prosperity of many shops. The text states: “major shops suspend numerous glass lamps from roof or ceiling, with grand lanterns at their gates, painted with splendid characters or patterns—birds, butterflies, temples, pavilions, gardens, mountains and waters; particularly along Shuangmendi street (today’s Beijing road, named for the paired gates near Gongbei Tower) and before The Grand Buddha Monastery (West of today’s Beijing road)” [34].

2.2.3. Night Market Lighting

A consistent feature of Beijing Road lies in its prosperous night markets. In Zhuzhi ci Poems of Canton, Jianhong He, a Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) native, described this vibrancy: “There is also a Shuangmendi night market, with lamps resembling those of Suzhou and Hangzhou throughout the night” [35]. This description indicates the prosperity of the night market. The lighting at that time generated a vibrant, fireworks-like atmosphere, reflecting commercial success. The West Lake illuminated night market, which evolved from these earlier markets after the reform and opening up period, gained further renown as the “Southern Pearl” [36]. West Lake consistently offered a bustling nocturnal scene each night (Figure 9). Thousands of stalls were arranged in lines. Above these stalls, hanging light tubes created a brilliant river of light. A broad array of commodities was illuminated by the interaction of light and shadow. Owing to this dynamic artificial lightscape, the West Lake Road illuminated night market became recognized as a beautiful scenic attraction in Guangzhou during that period. The operation of the West Lake Road illuminated night market ceased in 2001. This cessation resulted from a government initiative aimed at returning the road to public use.

2.2.4. Lightscape of the Academy

Guangzhou housed a significant body of academies during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). The core area for these institutions was near Beijing Road, including Liushuijing, Damazhan, and Xiaomazhan. In an approximately three-square-kilometer area, hundreds of such academies were located. One such institution, the Lujiang Academy, is situated in Liushuijing (currently at No. 29, Liushuijing, West Lake Road). Its establishment dates back to the 13th year of Jiaqing in the Qing Dynasty (1808). The Guangzhou Municipal People’s Government designated it as a municipal cultural relics protection unit in 1993 [38].

A couplet at the main ancestral hall gate of the Lujiang Academy offers insight into its past lightscape. The couplet reads: “The shadow of moon pursues the shadow of lamps, and the sound of books prevails over sounds of commerce”. This verse suggests a scene where numerous students pursued their studies by lamplight, beneath the moonlight. An intermingling of book sounds and the fragrance of books and ink occurred with the ambient moonlight and lamplight. This combination produced a blend of soundscape, smellscape, and lightscape. Finally, this contributed to the unique and profound cultural atmosphere in the academy. Currently, the Lujiang Academy functions as the Lingnan Finance Museum.

2.2.5. Lightscape of Official Activities at Tianzi Wharf

During the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), Tianzi Wharf functioned as an official wharf, representing the primary point for officials arriving in or departing from Guangzhou by water. A structure named the “Rijin Pavilion” (the term “Rijin” signifies “emperor”, reflecting the officials’ journey to the capital for imperial audiences) stood in front of this wharf. This pavilion, also commonly called the “Officials’ Reception Pavilion”, was specifically utilized for the reception and send-off of officials [39]. Export paintings from the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) (Figure 10) depict two “frying pan handle” houses (characteristic of upper-class Lingnan traditional dwellings exclusively permitted for renowned official families during the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1912)) situated adjacent to the “Rijin Pavilion”. Traditional, patterned lanterns positioned before the doorways contributed to a solemn official atmosphere at the wharf. The arrival of new officials for their posts frequently occurred through Tianzi Wharf. Upon an official ship’s docking, reflections from its twin mast flags and stern lanterns would appear on the water’s surface (Figure 11), while local officials waited to extend their greetings. The scene became exceptionally lively with the unified sound of drum music, the roar of artillery salutes, and a dense formation of umbrellas and canopies resembling clouds [39]. A unique lightscape was formed from the relationship of ceremonial firelight from salutes and lantern light reflecting on the water, as further augmented by the accompanying smoke. Officials concluding their service would depart from Tianzi Wharf, following a formal “pay their formal respects to the Emperor” at the Officials’ Reception Pavilion.

The exclusivity of Tianzi Wharf for government use reduced before and after the Tongzhi period of the Qing Dynasty (1862–1874), thus allowing civilian ships to berth there as well [42].

2.2.6. Summary of Artificial Lightscape

The artificial lightscapes of Beijing Road, mainly from the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1912) to modern times, exhibit diverse characteristics and are closely intertwined with social activities (

Table 2. Artificial lightscape dynasty and location.

Dynasty	Artificial Lightscape	Location
From Ming Dynasty to Qing Dynasty (1368–1912)	Jasmine lantern: “Flowers are also suitable for making lamps, carving jade and ice, exquisite and radiant in all directions”	South Gate
	“Myriad households hang jasmine lanterns”	each and every family
	“On the night of Qixi Festival in Guangzhou, there are many jasmine flower boats”	the Pearl River
	“There is also a Shuangmendi night market, with lamps resembling those of Suzhou and Hangzhou throughout the night”	Shuangmendi (the former name of Beijing Road)
	The shop signs and lanterns are brightly colored and painted with vibrant text or patterns	Shuangmendi (the former name of Beijing Road), the Grand Buddha Monastery
	Lantern in front of the “frying pan handle” house, lightscape of official activities at Tianzi Wharf	Tianzi Wharf, Rijin Pavilion
	“The shadow of moon pursues the shadow of lamps, the sound of books prevails over sounds of commerce”	Lujiang Academy
After the reform and opening up (after 1978)	The West Lake Road illuminated night market	West Lake Road

, Figure 12). They encompass various social activity scenes such as festivals, commerce, education, and official ceremonies, and also integrate with multi-dimensional sensory elements like soundscapes and smellscapes. Historical artificial lightscapes that have vanished with the passage of time also continue to exist through carriers such as poetry, literature, and export paintings.

2.3. Folk Lightscape

Folk light culture involves the traditions and phenomena related to light in folk culture and activities. The resulting landscapes formed by light and shadow is the folk lightscape. Folk lightscapes serve various functions, including nighttime illumination, economic activity, landscape appreciation, message conveyance, future prediction, and prayers for blessings, protection from disaster, etc. These are realized through specific means such as the cultural content of the lightscape, the lighting instruments used, atmospheric creation, and spatial distribution [8].

The Guang Fu area is characterized by a wealth of folk activities. Lightscape, as an integral component of these folk customs, serves a dual purpose. It creates a festive atmosphere while inheriting the deep-rooted Lingnan culture.

2.3.1. Dragon Boat Race

The Dragon Boat Festival, a folk custom displaying Han nationality characteristics, combines elements of history, belief, and competition. It’s originated from the nature worship practices of ancient water towns. Then, the festival incorporated the legend commemorating Qu Yuan, thereby evolving into a Dragon Boat Festival custom. The extensive river network in Guangzhou offers a natural setting for this folk activity, a factor contributing to its long-term survival over time (Figure 13) [44].

In ancient times, the Dragon Boat Festival celebrations in the Guangfu region were renowned for their extraordinary vibrancy. Dragon Boat Race venues existed at Mingyue Gorge and Yuye Lake (located near present-day West Lake Road) in West Lake from the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–979) period onward [46]. In the Song Dynasty (960–1276), Xinru Fang’s Nanhai Baiyong recorded the Dragon Boat Festival palace race, stating: “Every Dragon Boat Festival, palace attendants were commanded to race upon it. The Mingyue Gorge bypassed Yuye Lake, and the colored boats competed to win out of the palace boudoir” [17]. Xu Zhang, recording in the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), described Yuye Lake with the words: “On the fifth day of the fifth lunar month, colored teams emerge, and palace maidens vie for ornaments fine. Dragon boats race across Yuye Lake. Spring breezes gently stir the fragrant flowers and grass, while orioles newly sing and dance upon the walls. In those times the singing, dancing wanderers rejoiced…” Dragon boats raced across the sparkling Yuye Lake, set against the spectacle of the Dragon Boat Festival’s grand parade and costumed concubines. This scene created a multisensory experience integrating light, sound, and fragrance, produced by the relationship of painted boat hulls with sunlight and water reflections, alongside the aroma of surrounding flowers and plants and the songs of orioles. Then, the tradition relocated to the Pearl River’s waters due to silt deposition in Yuye Lake.

The Pearl River became a key venue for dragon boat race exhibitions during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) (Figure 14). Shizhen Wang, in Zhuzhi ci Poems of Guangzhou, portrayed the stunning lightscape of dragon boat race under the setting sun with the lines: “The willows on the Sea Pearl Rock grow dense and deep, while dragon boats surge through waves. A streak of setting sun illumines splendor bright, peacock and kingfisher plumes together form the boat canopies.” Separately, Weisen Fu, in Preface to the Poem of the Pearl River Race, captured the intensity of this race, writing: “The Capricorn drum splits the waves asunder, and thousands of thunders roar as one. Oar blades flash beneath the waters like myriad swords in clash.” Dragon boat races during this period evolved into major urban spectacles: daytime events featured sky-shaking drums and thousands of competing boats, while nighttime brought bright lights and numerous tourists [31]. Following the establishment of New China, dragon boat activities on Guangzhou’s Pearl River not only persisted but also progressively expanded. Currently, the annual Guangzhou International Dragon Boat Invitational Race draws dozens of domestic and international teams, transforming into a city-wide event lasting 15 days [46].

2.3.2. Lantern Festival

In Guangzhou, night market experienced prosperity starting from the Song Dynasty (960–1276). During major festivals such as the Lantern Festival, the erection of lamp sheds and music sheds near Haishan Tower was a common practice. These lamp sheds featured an assortment of lights and were adorned with flowers, ribbons, and various other ornaments. Nightfall brought flickering colors from the lights, while the music sheds hosted activities such as flute playing, storytelling, and puppet performances [48]. Lantern enjoyment was a universal activity on Lantern Festival days up through the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), with households extensively decorated with lanterns. The Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) scholar Dajun Qu, in Guangdong Xinyu, offered a description of Guangzhou’s Lantern Festival celebrations: “On Lantern Festival Eve, lanterns were hung and bonfires blazed, with roughly one in ten households setting off fireworks, and one in five igniting huatong. Merrymakers would carry ivory incense tubes tucked in their sleeves and delight in playing ‘Eight Music Drum Cabinet’. Throughout the city, both inside and outside its walls, a hundred troupes performed lion, elephant, dragon, and phoenix dances, alongside another hundred troupes of men and women enacting the role of children.” [30]. This historical record demonstrates that Lantern Festival activities of that era emphasized the creation of lightscapes and their integration with soundscapes and smellscapes.

The activity of guessing lantern riddles combined lightscapes with folk entertainment, thereby enhancing the festive atmosphere. Riddle enthusiasts (commonly known as riddlers) were present in the Guang Fu area during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644). Dajun Qu, a prominent scholar from the Guang Fu area writing at the transition from the Ming to the Qing Dynasty (1368–1912), noted in Guangdong Xinyu: “During the Shangyuan Festival (Lantern Festival), on the streets of Guangzhou’s lantern markets, riddles were displayed with prizes for those who could solve them, a custom termed ‘Lantern Signal’” [30]. In his article tracing it back to the ancient and modern Guangzhou lantern riddles, Boyan Liang recorded “In the early years of the Republic of China, in areas such as Shuangmendi and Xiajiufu (present-day Xiajiu Road), and during every Shangyuan Festival, riddle stages were set up, always drawing vast crowds of onlookers”. His records further detailed instances such as “Take, for example, the elderly teacher Zhan Juren. In anticipation of the Lantern Festival (around Yuanxiao), he would have a special decorative lantern custom-made. This lantern, hexagonal or octagonal in shape, had space on each face for two or three riddle slips, allowing for many riddles in total. An electric light bulb was fitted inside, making it luminous both inside and out, and it attracted a large gathering of riddle enthusiasts.” The evidence thus indicates that lantern riddle activities on Beijing Road during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) were indeed plentiful. These events were significant not only for creating a lively lightscape but also for spreading Guangfu traditional folk culture.

2.3.3. Birthday of the Lord Huaguang

Celebrated annually in September, the “Birthday of the Lord Huaguang” stands as a unique folk festival in the Lingnan region (“Lord Huaguang” is recognized in Lingnan folklore as the “God of Fire” and is additionally considered the progenitor of the Cantonese Opera industry). Moreover, this event ranks among the most vibrant festivals celebrated in Shuangmendi. The embellishment and use of lights intensified the festive atmosphere of this folk event. Huiyan Chen’s Nanyue youji, from the Qing Dynasty, offers a description: “Bamboo scaffolds were built along Xiongzhen street’s thoroughfares. The structures stood several feet high, with open galleries painted in five colors. All depicted flowers, birds, and water sprites. Below hung fabric curtains, lamps were painted bright, with many colored glass pieces and foreign curiosities in. Colored pavilions stood at center, playing eight-tone music and singing grand opera, and passersby lingered to watch and listen. From the Domain Office to the south gate, lights blazed brilliant, and golden drums clamored loud.” [49]. This passage clearly illustrates a rich lightscape atmosphere complemented by vivid soundscape scenes.

The folk custom of the “Birthday of the Lord Huaguang” began a gradual decline following a government notice issued in the final year of the Daoguang period (1850). This notice prohibited the activities aimed at rewarding gods [39].

2.3.4. Lightscape of Flower Market

The “flower market,” a traditional folk custom observed in Guangzhou during the Spring Festival, originated from in the “flower ferry” of the late Ming Dynasty (1573–1644). A gradual evolution occurred in the middle of the Qing Dynasty (1662–1795), where the flower market began to emphasize nighttime leisure and viewing; this development led to the formation of two prominent night flower markets “before the Domain Office (currently before the Department of Finance of Guangdong Province building)” and “Shuangmendi”. During the reign of Daoguang, the Continuation of Local Records of Nanhai District recorded the splendid atmosphere of the flower market situated before the vassal office, stating: “the flower market is in front of the Domain Office, the lights and the moon are shining, the fragrance of flowers is overwhelming, and the burning night is especially called beautiful scenery” [50]. This historical account details the intermingling of the flower market’s lights with moonlight, the diffusion of floral fragrances, and the intertwined nature of lightscape and smellscape. The Lantern Festival flower market progressively formed during the Xianfeng Period, thus relocating to today’s Beijing Road. Towards the end of the Qing Dynasty (1840–1912), an enhanced integration occurred between the lightscape of Guangzhou’s night flower market and traditional festivals, such as the Spring Festival. Chengpu Xu, recording in his Suimu Miscellaneous Poems during the Tongzhi period, described the Shuangmendi flower market: “Through shuangmendi flower market lanterns flicker and flow, and baskets are filled with big trees.“ His words illustrate the lively scene represented by flickering lights, the movement of people and shadows, and the intersection of light and shadow in the New Year’s Eve flower market. The flower market received its official formation in the Republic of China, at which point its timing was fixed from 28 December of the lunar calendar to the late night of New Year’s Eve. The diverse array of lanterns present in the flower market at that time contributed to making the Spring Festival flower market’s lightscape richer and more unique. Finally, Jiaoyu Road and West Lake Road, situated in the historic and cultural zone of Beijing Road, became the established location for the flower market, which is now recognized as Guangzhou’s oldest. Visiting this market, a popular folk activity also known as “Flower Street,” has continued as a grand occasion to this day [51].

2.3.5. Summary of Folk Lightscape

The lightscapes in the Guang Fu area, represented by Beijing Road, across different dynasties are closely related to folk activities (

Table 3. Folk lightscape dynasty and location.

Dynasty	Folk Lightscape	Location
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–979)	Dragon Boat Festival: “Every Dragon Boat Festival, palace attendants were commanded to race upon it and the colored boats competed to win out of the palace boudoir” People joyfully play with the shimmering waters and sunlight	West Lake
Song Dynasty (960–1276)	Lantern Festival: another major festival where colorful lights flicker inside the lamp shed	Haishan Tower
Qing Dynasty (1644–1912)	Birthday of the Lord Huaguang: “The lamps were painted with colors, the lights were brilliant” Flower Market: “The lamps and moon illuminate together, flower fragrance floods the air”	Shuangmendi (former name of Beijing Road)
	Dragon Boat Festival Dragon boat race: “The dragon boats surge through waves. A streak of setting sun illumines splendor bright”	the Pearl River
Republic of China (1912–1949)	Lantern Festival: riddle arenas combined with exquisitely crafted lanterns	Shuangmendi (former name of Beijing Road)

, Figure 15). Important festival scenes such as the Dragon Boat Festival dragon boat races, Lantern Festival, the Birthday of the Lord Huaguang, and the Spring Festival flower market not only create a strong visual atmosphere relying on natural and artificial light sources but also blend with soundscapes and smellscapes, forming a multi-sensory festival experience that showcases unique folk culture and regional characteristics.

3. Existing Lightscape and Construction Characteristics of the Beijing Road Historic and Cultural Zone

3.1. Natural Lightscape

Several components constitute the existing natural lightscape in the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone. These elements include skylight, sunset, sunset glow, moonlight, and starlight. Furthermore, the natural lightscape comprises light on the river, shadows from landscape sketches and people, and light and shadow patterns (light spots) created by tree branches and leaves. Further aspects involve the light and shadow on buildings and arcade colonnades, shadows cast by grills and other structures, light transmission and reflection from buildings and heritage glass, and the skyline formed by building outlines [52].

3.1.1. The Pearl River in the Area of Tianzi Wharf

Dynastic changes led to the gradual widening of the Beijing Road’s south bank and shifts in Tianzi Wharf’s location. Despite these transformations, the Pearl River’s natural lightscape has persisted in this area. During daylight hours, sparkling water characterizes the river surface, which reflects both skylight and sunset glow.While the nighttime shows the moonlight resembling silver and stars scattered across the river, appearing to dance with its flow.

3.1.2. West Lake and Yaozhou Site

What was once the ancient West Lake has been transformed into land, and only the historic relic named “Nine Star Garden” remains (Figure 16). In the lake water, nine “Jiuyao Stone,” each unique in shape and color, have been placed, while a stone bridge and waterside pavilion sway in the blue waves. Sunlight causes the lake to sparkle. Under these conditions, the reflections of pavilions, stone bridges, and waterside pavilions sway in the lake, reflecting the actual scenery. Moreover, the whirling shadows of towering ancient trees are cast upon building facades, the lake surface, and the ground. These combined elements create a vivid natural lightscape [53].

3.1.3. Light and Shadow of Buildings and Structures

(1)

Light and shadow on the Department of Finance of Guangdong Province Building

At the northern extremity of Beijing Road stands the Department of Finance of Guangdong Province Building. Construction of this building occurred in the fourth year of the Republic of China (1915). Currently, it holds the status of a provincial cultural relics protection unit in Guangdong. The building exhibits an architectural style characteristic of the European Renaissance with both solemnity and elegance. Imitating Western classical eclecticism, it ranks among the representative buildings of modern Guangzhou. Daytime sunlight causes the colossal Roman columns to accentuate changes in light and shadow. In front of the building, the whirling branches and leaves of three ancient trees cast mottled shadows onto its walls, while the glass in the arched and square windows reflects nearby buildings along with the blue sky and white clouds (Figure 17). The whole building is more solemn and elegant with the changes in light and shadow.

(2)

Light and shadow on arcade buildings in a street of time-honored shops

A street of time-honored shops occupies the northern part of Beijing Road (specifically from the Guangwei Road section to the Zhongshan 5th Road) as a hub for dozens of Guangzhou’s time-honored brands. The entire section demonstrates an arcade building form that represents Lingnan architectural culture. A traditional “three-stage type” defines the facade of the arcade along the street; this type comprises a bottom, body, and roof [54]. Under sunlight during the day, the vivid displays of roof flower details become possible, and the layers of the building body appear more abundant. Meanwhile, colored glass on the windows, incorporating elements of Guangfu traditional residences, refracts colorful light spots. Meanwhile, a rhythm is formed by the projection of arcade columns at the building’s base. The combination of these elements results in a unique and adaptable light quality (Figure 18).

3.1.4. The Site of the Ruins of Time-Honored Beijing Road and Gongbei Tower

Five archaeological floors, dating from the Northern Song Dynasty to the Ming and Qing Dynasties (960–1912), are present at the site of the ruins of Gongbei Tower. Separately, excavations in the middle of Beijing Road unearthed 11 layers of pavement, which measure approximately 44 m in length and about 3.8 m in width, extending to a depth of 3.0 m below the ground surface. These layers, when viewed from top to bottom, correspond to the northern section of the site of the ruins of time-honored Beijing Road across five historical periods: the Republic of China, the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1912), the Song and Yuan Dynasties (960–1368), the Southern Han Dynasty (917–971), and the Tang Dynasty (618–907) [55]. Following their excavation in 2002, a tempered glass structure was installed to cover and display both the site of the ruins of time-honored Beijing Road and Gongbei Tower. The site transformation of this site into a central city hot spot can be attributed to its unique landscape and historical and cultural significance. Daytime sunlight refracts through the glass and into the ruins, an effect that clearly indicates the details of the brick and stone floor. The glass surface also reflects its surroundings, including the blue sky, ancient trees, shops, red lanterns, and human figures. Moreover, leaves from ancient trees flanking the relics are scattered across the glass, creating a mottled light and shadow effect that contrast with the relics visible beneath the glass (Figure 19). This results in the formation of a rich natural lightscape.

3.1.5. Summary of Natural Lightscape

The existing main natural lightscapes along Beijing Road are formed by the combination of sunlight, tree shadows, and historical and cultural heritage sites (

Table 4. Types of natural lightscape and environmental overview.

Lightscape Type	Space Type	Function of the Location	Lightscape Elements	Environmental Landscape Elements	Natural Lightscape Distribution Map	Picture
Lightscape of the Pearl River near Tianzi Wharf	Waterfront space	Viewing	Wave light, reflection	Waterscape
Lightscape of West Lake and Yaozhou site	Waterfront space	Viewing	Lake light, tree shadow, lake reflection	Stone scenery, pavilions, stone bridges and waterside pavilions
Light and shadow of arcade buildings	Street space	Traffic, leisure	Tree shadow, architectural light and shadow	Green plants, landscape sketch
Lightscape of the site of the ruins of time-honored Beijing Road and Gongbei Tower	Street space (pedestrian area	Viewing, leisure	Tree shadow, glass reflection, light and shadow of surrounding arcades	Old trees, landscape sketch

, Figure 20), fully demonstrating the historical heritage of Beijing Road.

3.2. Artificial Lightscape

Within the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone, the artificial lightscape comprises several categories: lamps and lanterns, architectural lighting, landscape lighting, and multimedia technology, among others. The category of lamps and lanterns comprises items such as street lamps, special lanterns, lamp strips, and static or flashing billboard lights. Architectural lighting, accordingly, consists of decorative lighting for landmark or arcade buildings and light from architectural windows. Landscape lighting involves illumination or decorative lighting for landscape sketches or green landscapes, as well as ground lighting for pedestrian streets. Finally, multimedia technology includes elements such as animation, naked-eye 3D displays, holographic projections, and multimedia interactive devices, etc.

3.2.1. Lightscape of Lamps and Lanterns

Several typical types of lamps are identified in the area. Firstly, street lamps are installed to offer basic illumination. Secondly, various lanterns are utilized, a category that includes red and yellow lanterns suspended from the top of arcade colonnades, in addition to the red and colored lanterns adorning ancient trees. Thirdly, lamp strips and shaped lights can be observed wrapped around vertical components such as tree poles. Fourthly, static or dynamic lighting for shop billboards is also a common feature (Figure 21).

3.2.2. Lightscape of Building Lighting

(1)

Lightscape of the Grand Buddha Monastery at night

The Grand Buddha Monastery, located south of the intersection between West Lake Road and Beijing Road, embodies a characteristic structure termed “temple hidden in the city, city and temple covered, city and temple combined, and temple and city dependent.” Originally constructed during the Southern Han Dynasty (917–971), the monastery experienced abandonment in the Song Dynasty, followed by rebuilding in the Yuan Dynasty (960–1276), and its expansion into the Longzang Temple occurred in the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644). The decline of Buddhism in the late Ming Dynasty (1573–1644) led to its governmental conversion into a public office. War resulted in the destruction of this government office in the seventh year of the Shunzhi reign of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). Reconstruction of the Grand Buddha Monastery took place in the second year of the Kangxi reign, establishing it as a Buddhist holy land south of the five ridges [56]. The Pujue building, representing a comprehensive Hongfa building, reached completion and opened towards the end of 2016. This seven-story structure features blue brick and nanmu, cornice brackets, and golden glazed tiles, presenting a magnificent monument. Its location across the street from Grandbuy Department Store has contributed to its status as a landmark building in the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone.

Daylight causes the golden glazed tiles of the Chinese-style building to shine brightly, while the changes in light and shadow accentuate its magnificence and solemnity. When night falls, bright lights appear, and orange illumination highlights architectural details including window frames, glass, brackets, and railings; it also outlines the overall architectural outline (Figure 22). A vivid reflection of the exquisite and spectacular charm of traditional buildings is offered by the Grand Buddha Monastery’s lightscape, which attracts tourists to pause and observe.

(2)

Lightscape of Department of Finance of Guangdong Province Building at night

Dynamic colored floodlights illuminate the exterior wall of this building at night, thereby highlighting the elevation details of the roof, cornice, column, and window frame (Figure 23a). This approach also enhances the nighttime lightscape charm of the Department of Finance of Guangdong Province Building, injecting vitality into Beijing Road. The Department of Finance of Guangdong Province Building utilized its dynamic light show as a background for stage performances during the September 2020 opening ceremony that followed the renovation and upgrading of Beijing Road (Figure 23b). This combination became a landmark event showcasing the new appearance of this ancient city.

(3)

Lightscape of arcade buildings in a street of time-honored shops at night

The north section of Beijing Road houses a street of time-honored shops, where the arcade remains well preserved. To create the arcade’s nighttime lighting, numerous floodlights and spotlights are arranged at the bottom, body, and roof of the “three-stage-type” facade, forming a rich shadow.

On the arcade’s ground floor, the colonnade, columns, and shop billboards effectively complement several lighting elements: streetlights on the ground floor’s square columns, top lights on the colonnade, sign lights, and the shop’s translucent interior. Building facades primarily feature window illumination, where LED lights emphasize window frame detail. These lights are interwoven with neon signs from shops that have transparent and changeable windows, a method that both strengthens the building wall’s structural sense and increases the lighting’s perceived extension along the street interface. Floodlighting is the method utilized for the roof’s illumination, which highlights eave and parapet detail (Figure 24). This lighting approach strengthens the arcade’s historical and cultural charm, thereby establishing it as a crucial display window for the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone.

3.2.3. Lightscape of Multimedia Technology

(1)

Xin Da Xin Department Store naked-eye 3D curved screen

Positioned at the intersection of Beijing Road and Zhongshan 5th Road, Xin Da Xin Department Store sits in the core of Guangzhou’s traditional, typically crowded and bustling, business zone.

Constructed in 1914, the building was subject to a facade renovation in 2020, after which China’s largest outdoor naked-eye 3D curved screen was installed at the southeast facade’s corner. This curved screen features a rounded corner radian that perfectly conforms to the structure of this building. Optimal viewing is achieved from an area 20–30 m south of Xin Da Xin Department Store, a location corresponding to the entrance of the Beijing Road commercial pedestrian street. Viewers are able to experience spatial and stereoscopic images without requiring 3D glasses or other auxiliary equipment, thus creating a strong visual impact [58]. A rich variety of content, including commercial advertisements, cultural publicity, and special art animations, is displayed on the 3D curved screen. Among the impressive displays was the naked-eye 3D video Dragon Soars Across the Four Seas, broadcast during the 2024 New Year, where a giant dragon appeared to cling vividly to the building [59]. Another notable animation featured a high-tech spaceship appearing stationary in front of the screen, from which astronauts extended a huge hand out towards the audience for interaction, an experience akin to watching 3D sci-fi blockbusters in a cinema (Figure 25).

(2)

Holographic dynamic projection

The installations of 3D dynamic fog screen projections are set at the entrance of the Yuexiu Academy Street on the west side of Beijing Road and at Libai Lane on its east side (Figure 26). This technology uses water mist as the medium, and projects colorful dynamic flowers and other patterns onto the mist to create three-dimensional images. Travelers passing through the fog screen can shuttle amid changing light and shadow, thereby experiencing an interweaving of virtual and real elements. By decorating the ancient streets with a sense of science and technology, these dynamic fog screen projections attract tourists with an aura of mystery and enhance their lightscape experience.

In addition, ground projection interactive devices have been introduced by the Beijing Road Pedestrian Street at multiple locations. These devices project a series of carefully designed patterns—including flowers, starry skies, and cartoon characters—onto the ground during nighttime (Figure 27), thereby enhancing the tour’s fun and interactive qualities.

(3)

Facade projection of arcade building in the street of time-honored shops

Following an upgrade in 2020, the arcade building facade in the street of time-honored shops presents a new appearance. Special curtains installed on the facade windows act as a projection background, where, at specific times, the stage play Encounter Beijing Road is broadcast through projection (Figure 28). This play features the group portraits of Young Master Dongshan and Miss Xiguan as its protagonists, with their mutual love story as a narrative thread to demonstrate Guangfu’s cultural characteristics. On the arcade’s facade, modern technology demonstrates a dynamic, audio-visual multimedia lightscape effect, which injects new cultural vitality and scientific and technological meaning into the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone.

3.2.4. Lightscape of Landscape Lighting

(1)

The site of the ruins of time-honored Beijing Road and Gongbei Tower

Professional display lights are installed at the site of the ruins of time-honored Beijing Road and Gongbei Tower, which also features an OLED transparent screen for displaying site information and 3D animation videos of the site. Through the screen glass, the ruins can be viewed when the screen is not active. The use of professional display lights renders the site details clearer during nighttime (Figure 29). A unique lightscape effect is conferred upon the site by modern technology, thereby enriching visitors’ perception and comprehension of history and culture relating to Beijing Road.

(2)

Copper Kettle Clepsydra

Xian Runyun and Du Zisheng forged the Copper Kettle Clepsydra timer (1316), in the third year of Yanyou (1316) of the Yuan Dynasty. This device stands as an important cultural relic of Guangzhou city. Its composition involves four copper kettles, with its timing function achieved through the sequential dropping of water. China’s largest and best-preserved ancient timer is this particular clepsydra [60]. The National Museum of China now stores the original from the Gongbei Tower of Beijing Road, a piece once situated on the ancient traditional central axis of Guangzhou.

A copy of the “Copper Kettle Clepsydra” was produced in 2009. Then, in 2017, designers created and constructed the “Copper Kettle Clepsydra” landscape sketch at the original Gongbei Tower site on Beijing Road, integrating the Gongbei Tower’s double door shape with the twelve Chinese zodiac signs and other elements (Figure 30). Copper pots arranged in four steps dominate this landscape, where water is transmitted continuously in sequence, thereby reproducing the ancient timing principle. The decoration of the base includes bronze animal heads representing the Chinese zodiac, from whose mouths water flows into an annular pool. Engraved on the vertical brick square arch are the words “Beijing Road” and “from 214 BC.” The nighttime lighting design is primarily aimed at highlighting the landscape’s levels. Specifically, the warm light from LED circular spotlights emphasizes the blue brick texture of the square arch, while weak colored lights at the pool’s bottom generate a sparkling effect through the water. Interwoven with the surrounding hustle and bustle of people and accompanied by the ticking sound of running water, the landscape lights at this location collaboratively create a unique historical and cultural block atmosphere with both lightscape and soundscape qualities [61].

(3)

New Flower Street

The “Huacheng Flower Street” is a new establishment situated in the south section of Beijing Road (an area extending from Wenming Road to Taikang Road). This street accommodates flower shops, flower art displays, cultural and creative arts stalls, as well as vendors offering special agricultural products. The regional cultural atmosphere of Huacheng Flower Street is effectively conveyed through various elements such as lights, signs, and glass windows. A central signboard, “Beijing Road Huacheng Flower Street,” marks the entrance. Transparent display boxes flank this sign, showcasing dragon head and lion head artworks that embody Cantonese cultural characteristics. During nighttime, the bustling pedestrian street consistently emphasizes the traditional artistic image. In addition, flower street kiosks feature rich and diverse lighting solutions. These solutions consist of characteristic signboard lights, irregular light strips, and warm lights. In conjunction with the ring light strips on surrounding trees and colorful lanterns, they comprise a multi-level night lightscape for the flower street (Figure 31). This overall presentation has successfully attracted a considerable number of local residents and international tourists.

3.2.5. Summary of Artificial Lightscape

In the contemporary context, the artificial lightscapes of Beijing Road reflect the integration of new technologies with commerce, landscapes, and traditional culture (

Table 5. Types of artificial lightscape and environmental overview.

Lightscape Type		Space Type	Function of the Location	Lightscape Elements	Environmental Landscape Elements	Artificial Lightscape Distribution Map	Picture
Lamps and lanterns		Arcade ground floor colonnade, pedestrian street	Traffic, leisure	Street lamps, lanterns, lamp strips, billboard lights	Green plants, stalls, sculptures
Building lighting	Lightscape of the Grand Buddha Monastery at night	Front square	Traffic, leisure and stay	Building facade lighting, Grandbuy facade media display, surrounding building lighting	Green plants, flower pools, pavilions, towers
	Lightscape of Department of Finance of Guangdong Province Building at night	Front square	Traffic, leisure and stay	Building facade lighting, lanterns hanging from trees, and surrounding building lighting	Green plants, flower pool, landscape sketches
	Lightscape of arcade facade at night	Pedestrian road	Traffic, leisure and stay, interaction	Holographic dynamic projection on the ground, building facade lighting, billboard lighting	Flower pool, landscape sketches
Lightscape of multimedia technology	Xin Da Xin Department Store naked eye 3D curved screen	Outdoor plaza	Traffic, stay, guide	LED screen animation, billboard lighting, building facade lighting, building window lighting	Green plants, city model
	Holographic dynamic projection on the ground	Pedestrian road	Traffic, stay, interaction	Dynamic projection	Flower pool, landscape sketches
	Facade projection of arcade building	Pedestrian road	Traffic, leisure and stay, interaction	Facade projection	Flower pool, landscape sketches
Lights-cape of landscape lighting	Lightscape of the site of the ruins of time-honored Beijing Road and Gongbei Tower	Pedestrian road	Viewing, leisure and stay	Lights under the glass cover, reflective glass, lanterns on the surrounding ancient trees, lights of surrounding buildings	Ancient trees, landscape sketches
	Lightscape of Copper Kettle Clepsydra	Intersection	Viewing, leisure and stay, taking photos	Landscape sketch lighting, water lighting	Green plants, waterscape
	Lightscape of new Flower Street	Pedestrian road	Leisure and stay, business	Landscape sketch lighting, shop lighting, tree lantern lighting	Green plants, flower pool, landscape sketches

, Figure 32).

3.3. Folk Lightscape

3.3.1. The Folk Custom of “Flower Street” and the Spring Festival Flower Market

Visiting the Spring Festival Flower Market, an event commonly known as “Flower Street,” represents an important Spring Festival folk custom in the Guang Fu area. This event occurs annually, beginning on the 28th day of the twelfth lunar month and concluding on New Year’s Eve. The tradition itself has continued since its origin during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) (see 2.3.4 summary). The lightscape as a critical element in establishing the atmosphere for these folk activities, consistently running through the entire event.

The lighting at the Spring Festival Flower Market is an indispensable folkloric symbol. The Spring Flower Market employs a modern lightscape design to evoke the historical lightscape of the traditional festivities. To illustrate, the 2024 Year of the Dragon Spring Festival Flower Market on West Lake Road offers a clear example (Figure 33): its temporary main archway, the “Gongbei Tower,” was adorned with a light design integrating points, lines, and surface. The outline of the memorial archway was defined by warm yellow light, which also illuminated the archway’s cornice, brackets, and carved decorations [62]. At the entrance side, the “Dragon Soaring Flower Sea” installation combined flowers with the representations of flying dragons. Golden lights were used to accentuate the dragon’s three-dimensional form. Flower stalls were arranged in close succession, and the lamps suspended from them, shining with star-like brightness, formed a magnificent corridor of light and shadow. The lighting decorations of the Spring Festival Flower Market effectively reproduce the historical lightscape described as “the lamps and moon illuminate together, while flower fragrance floods the air” in the Continuation of Local Records of Nanhai District.

Building upon traditional lighting decoration, that year’s Spring Festival Flower Market also incorporated the “Yuexiu West Lake Metaverse Flower Market” digital platform. Citizens, by scanning the landscape of the main archway or “Copper Kettle Clepsydra” with their mobile phones, could activate an AR interactive feature named “dragon flies into the sky.” This offered a unique experience represented by the interweaving of virtual and actual reality. Modern scientific and technological means have infused new vitality into the folk lightscape. Therefore, both the Spring Festival Flower Market and historical culture now demonstrate a unique appeal through this new form.

3.3.2. Guangfu Temple Fair

The Guangfu Temple Fair originated from the religious temple market activities that date back to the Han and Tang Dynasties (202 B.C.-907). Then, it developed into a cultural symbol of Guangfu following commercial expansion in the Song and Yuan Dynasties (960–1368). Its modern iteration commenced with the folk activities of the Lantern Festival, which were officially organized in 2011. The festival, inaugurated on the Lantern Festival, lasted for seven days. Spatially, the activities centered on the City God Temple and the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone, including forms such as deity processions, performances, and exhibitions [63]. Parade lanterns (Figure 34a) are a principal activity during the celebration. Furthermore, a lightscape atmosphere rich in Cantonese characteristics is cultivated through the display of Cantonese rosewood palace lanterns (Figure 34b). Traditional folk customs, including singing and dancing, dragon and lion dances, and Bayin Gong and drum performances, were interspersed throughout the activities, thereby fashioning a multi-level soundscape. A unique smellscape was formed from the aromas of mellow rice wine, salty preserved meat, and tangerine peel fragrance, which permeated the characteristic food street. Collectively, these varied landscapes establish a temple fair experience that integrates light, sound, and fragrance.

In 2014, the unique Guangfu Water Temple Fair was introduced as an additional feature (Figure 35). The sailing ceremony for the water temple fair took place at Tianzi Wharf on the day of the Lantern Festival. The scene of folk sacrifice to the South Seas God, as practiced in the Sui and Tang Dynasties (581–907), was recreated through the traditional “Triple Offering Ritual” prayer ceremony. In this context, red lanterns and yellow canopies, under illumination, generated a warm lightscape atmosphere, while Cantonese folk music with a strong local style animated the festive environment of the wharf. The sailing ceremony, acting as the central ritual, cultivated a solemn soundscape atmosphere, composed of the underwater sounds from the washing ceremony, the voices of individuals reading congratulatory texts, and the accompaniment of ancient music. Throughout programs such as lantern riddle guessing, Guangcai course, Sichuan opera face changing and other programs, the catchwords of Cantonese explanation, the crisp sound of porcelain pen touch in the Guangcai course, and the sudden changes in gongs and drums of Sichuan opera face changing were all mingled with the laughter from the lantern riddle guessing on the open deck. During the Guangfu Water Temple Fair, the Tianzi Wharf also launched a “South Seas God” and other antique cruise ships to join the “Pearl River Night Cruise.” When these cruise ships navigated the sparkling waters of the Pearl River, the lights from both riverbanks and the vessels themselves created a complementary illumination, enabling people to experience the unique charm of the Pearl River, Guangzhou’s mother river.

3.3.3. Summary of Folk Lightscape

The existing folk lightscapes along Beijing Road remain important showcases of Guangfu traditional culture. Folk lightscapes represented by “Flower Street” and “Guangfu Temple Fair” incorporate various elements such as soundscapes and smellscapes (

Table 6. Types of folk lightscape and environmental overview.

Lightscape Type	Space Type	Function of the Location	Lightscape Elements	Environmental Landscape Elements	Folk Lightscape Distribution Map	Picture
Folk lightscape of “Flower Street”	Square, pedestrian road	Viewing, business, interaction	Lanterns, decorative lighting facade lighting of structures	Green plants, landscape sketches
Guangfu Water Temple Fair	Wharf, waterfront space	Tour, traffic	Lanterns, decorative lighting	Waterscape, urban landscape

, Figure 36), and enhance the visual expressiveness and immersion of folk festivals through modern technologies, revitalizing traditional folk customs in contemporary urban spaces.

4. Comparison of Ancient and Modern Lightscape

A comparison of the ancient (both vanished and preserved) and contemporary lightscapes in the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone indicates that urban development has changed the types of natural lightscape. Moreover, artificial lightscape has also been changed by the progress of science and technology. Folk lightscape continues to be an important approach for showcasing the traditional culture of Guangzhou. New technologies consistently facilitate the emergence of new forms of multimedia technology lightscape [67]. While some historical lightscapes have been preserved and persist to the present time, social changes have caused others to gradually disappear (

Table 7. The main scenery of the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone from ancient to modern times.

Lightscape Type	Ancient and Modern Lightscape and Its Present Situation		Contemporary New Lightscape	The Vanished Historical Lightscape and the Reason for Disappearance
Natural lightscape	The Pearl River near Tianzi Wharf: sunlight, moonlight, sunset glow, wave light, water light	The north bank of the Pearl River has moved southward, but its natural lightscape still exists	Lightscape of the site of the ruins of time-honored Beijing Road and Gongbei Tower	Enjoying “Hai Shan Xiao Ji” in Haishan Tower, watching the tide, reviewing the navy (Song Dynasty (960–1276)) sword and gun reflect the sun	Haishan Tower was destroyed by war in Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
	West Lake and Yaozhou site: Natural water light, water reflection, tree light and shadow	The area of West Lake and Yaozhou has been reduced, and now there is only the site of “Nine Star Garden”; Some natural lightscapes still exist		“Taiping Yanhu” is formed due to the hazy water vapor in sandbars	The north bank of the Pearl River moves southward, and sandbars merge into the north bank
	Light and shadow of arcade buildings	The arcade of the building is intact, and the light and shadow changes still exist		West Lake and Yaozhou: lotus shadow, dense Sea Island, cloud shadow in the water, mirage of pavilions, solitary smoke under the sunset and “The Spring Sunrise of Yaozhou”	The diversion of the water system led to the shrinkage of the lake. There is only one pond left after the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), which is now the “Yaozhou site”
Artificial lightscape	All kinds of lanterns and lamps	The form and function have changed with the changes in the times	Lightscape of building lighting: Lights of the Grand Buddha Monastery at night, facade lighting and lighting show of Department of Finance of Guangdong Province Building, lighting of arcade facade at night	Jasmine lantern, lightscape of flower lights in the jasmine flower market at South Gate	Jasmine flowers are reduced due to the introduction of exotic flowers
			Multimedia technology: Xin Da Xin Department Store naked eye 3D curved screen, holographic dynamic projection on the ground, facade projection of arcade building	Glass lamps and lanterns shops in Shuangmendi and the Grand Buddha Monastery	Changes in products and business models due to changes in the times
	Lightscape of flower market	It has moved to the West Lake Road area and evolved into the current lightscape of the Spring Festival Flower Market	Lightscape of landscape lighting: lighting of the site of the ruins of time-honored Beijing Road and Gongbei Tower, lightscape of Copper Kettle Clepsydra, flower street lighting	Lightscape of night market on West Lake Road	Canceled
				Lightscape of Lujiang Academy	The academy is now used for other purposes
				Lightscape of official activities at Tianzi Wharf	Official activities no longer exist
Folk lightscape	Folk lightscape of “Flower Street”	The folk custom of “Flower Street” has been handed down to this day	Lightscape of the Guangfu Water Temple Fair at Tianzi Wharf	The light shed of Haishan Tower flickers	Haishan Tower was destroyed by war in Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
	The lightscape of dragon boat race in the Dragon Boat Festival	The location of the Dragon Boat Race has been transferred from West Lake to the Pearl River and has been handed down to this day		Birthday of the Lord Huaguang in Shuangmendi: the lamps were painted with colors, the lights were brilliant	It was banned by the government at the end of Daoguang. This folk custom has declined and disappeared
	Guangfu Temple Fair	It is now an official- led folk festival with a modern lantern festival

, Figure 37).

4.1. The Type of Natural Lightscape Has Changed

Social and geographical transformations have led to changes in the types of natural lightscape in the region. Thus, some natural lightscapes that existed historically have vanished. For instance, “Hai Shan Xiao Ji,” one of the Eight Ancient Scenic Spots of Yangcheng (Guangzhou) during the Song Dynasty (960–1276), disappeared following damage caused to the Haishan Tower in the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368). The Song Dynasty (960–1276) scene depicting “swords and spears reflecting the sun” during naval division inspections is currently recorded only in literature. Preservation of some historical natural lightscapes remains possible. The natural lightscape of the Pearl River in the Tianzi Wharf area exemplifies this. While the wharf’s location has changed, the core features of this lightscape have remained.

In the contemporary presentation of the ancient city, the natural lightscape is increasingly rich. Architectural space forms have become more diversified, and the composition of landscape elements in the urban environment is similarly varied. The glass materials utilized at the site of the ruins of the time-honored Beijing Road and the Gongbei Tower reflect surrounding scenes as well as light and shadow. This reflection creates a special atmosphere where historical and modern times overlap.

4.2. The Expression of Artificial Lightscape Has a New Form

Artificial lightscape exhibits more new forms in the contemporary context, primarily as it is more closely related to the technology of the times and prevailing social forms. Firstly, the decorative lighting of landmark buildings now represents an important part of the lightscape in the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone. Examples include the brilliant architectural lighting of the Grand Buddha Monastery, the dynamic transformation of the colored floodlights on the external wall of the Department of Finance of Guangdong Province Building, and the “three-stage type” night lighting applied to the facades of arcade buildings in the street of time-honored shops. All these applications create a new lightscape atmosphere for the ancient city by means of modern lighting technology. Secondly, “night market” and “lantern” cultural expressions have become more diverse through the reliance on multimedia technology lightscapes. This diversification comprises the dynamic lightscape of naked-eye 3D curved screens, the immersive experience offered by holographic dynamic projections, and the theater night market featuring arcade facade projections, all of which are the innovative expressions of traditional culture. Thirdly, the site of the ruins of time-honored Beijing Road and the Gongbei Tower demonstrate the innovative application of artificial lightscape in the protection and display of cultural heritage. This is achieved through artificial lighting displays, the combination of the Copper Kettle Clepsydra with lightscape elements, and the ingenious collocation of flower street lanterns and lighting belts with ancient trees.

4.3. Folk Lightscape Is Still an Important Part of Traditional Culture

With a history spanning over 2000 years, Guangzhou stands as a famous cultural city; its Beijing Road historic and cultural zone is situated in the earliest cultural and commercial center of the Lingnan area. Since ancient times, the display of Guangfu culture has uniquely benefited from the role of folk lightscape. Creating a festival atmosphere through the combination of lightscape and folk entertainment represents a mode inherited across generations. Existing folk activities, including guessing lantern riddles, flower streets, and temple fairs, continue to embody specific Guangfu cultural thoughts. These thoughts, “Seeking truth from entering the world” and “openness and compatibility,” emphasize life rituals and are conveyed through unique entertainment and cultural meaning. The interaction between people and lightscape is evident during the Lantern Festival’s lantern riddle guessing activity, where lanterns and riddles are combined. During the flower street activities of Spring Festival, a lively festival atmosphere is jointly constructed by elements such as colorful flowers, unique lanterns, New Year goods, and handicrafts. Through the visual display of colored lights and boats, alongside opera, dance, and other performances, the Guangfu Water Temple Fair effectively demonstrates its unique cultural heritage and regional customs.

5. Conclusions

This paper systematically examines the evolution of natural, artificial, and folk lightscapes in the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone. The key historical and current nodes for each category are summarized. Additionally, a comparison between ancient and modern lightscape is performed. It indicates how social development and geographical shifts have impacted the landscape of the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone. While certain historical lightscapes have vanished, many aspects of the Guangfu cultural spirit have survived. The region’s contemporary urban landscape features a dominant lightscape transformed from traditional natural elements to new forms. They are represented by modern technologies such as 3D projection, multimedia interaction, and LED lighting. Regarding lightscape content, new technologies and methods are sometimes applied to convey the historical heritage of this Lingnan ancient city. However, other instances prioritize visual impact. Therefore, the city’s profound cultural heritage is not effectively integrated into the landscape experience.

As an integral component of the urban landscape system in Guangzhou, the lightscape of the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone also functions as a crucial portal for displaying the city’s culture. To create the overall image of this historic and cultural zone, it is necessary to make greater use of the special visual qualities of lightscape to highlight its characteristics and original historical and cultural meaning.

6. Future Work and Discussion

6.1. Recommendations and Strategies

Based on the historical and contemporary analyses of lightscapes, the following recommendations are proposed:

(1)

For vanished lightscapes, digital reconstruction technologies, including multimedia restoration of historical photographs and paintings, provide viable revival solutions. This approach demonstrates a significant potential through the integration of 3D modeling techniques, which enable the transformation of historical lightscapes into dynamic visual representations. Such technological applications substantially enhance visitor engagement by delivering immersive experiences, particularly through augmented reality (AR) systems that permit the overlay of virtual historical scenes onto physical environments via mobile devices. Compared to physical conservation methods (e.g., architectural reconstruction), digital restoration exhibits considerable advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness and unlimited reproducibility. Nevertheless, several limitations warrant consideration: the reconstruction quality is inherently dependent on source material integrity, while AI algorithms frequently produce aesthetically optimized outputs that may compromise historical accuracy. Furthermore, virtual reality (VR) implementations risk fostering misinterpretations among viewers who might perceive reconstructions as factual historical records, potentially leading to cognitive dissonance.

(2)

For extant historical lightscapes, it is necessary to implement enhanced conservation and transmission measures. Regarding contemporary lightscape manifestations, innovative integration with Guangfu cultural elements can effectively showcase regional distinctiveness. Specifically, the interactive lightscape installations incorporating Guangfu cultural motifs could be developed, serving dual purposes of fostering public engagement and promoting cultural awareness.

(3)

Regarding sustainable lighting design, the historical lightscapes of the Beijing Road historic and cultural zone represent a key cultural asset that can support sustainable development initiatives. When implementing illumination schemes, dual consideration must be given to visitor requirements in historic and cultural zones and ecological preservation [68]. Advanced solutions like motion-activated lighting systems can minimize light pollution while preserving distinctive nocturnal ambience and reducing energy expenditure. Particular attention should be devoted to preventing the urban nightscape homogenization caused by standardized lighting practices [69], with the prioritized conservation of regionally characteristic luminous heritage. These cultural assets not only embody the historical continuity of Guangzhou but also serve as crucial resources for urban sustainability, requiring innovative approaches that balance preservation with progressive development.

6.2. Future Work

Building upon established theoretical frameworks, subsequent investigations into Beijing Road’s historic lightscapes will employ the following methodologies:

(1)

A lightwalk methodology integrated with questionnaire surveys will be implemented to assess subjective perceptions. This approach, as a specialized form of sensory walk, involves a systematic pedestrian-based evaluation of luminous environments through predetermined routes [70]. Researchers will first identify critical spatial nodes—including high-density pedestrian areas and culturally significant landmarks—through preliminary field studies to establish optimized assessment paths. During implementation, trained facilitators will guide the participants along designated routes, with structured pauses at predetermined observation points for independent environmental evaluation. The participants will subsequently complete standardized questionnaires documenting their lightscape experiences both at observation nodes and along transit paths.

(2)

Objective environmental measurements. A quantitative assessment of the photometric parameters in the lightscapes on Beijing Road will be conducted, including luminance distribution, correlated color temperature, and horizontal illuminance. High dynamic range (HDR) imaging technology will be systematically employed for comprehensive light environment analysis, following established protocols for urban lighting research.

(3)

Laboratory simulation studies. On-site captured images will be replayed in the laboratory for participants to evaluate. This approach integrates eye-tracking, electrocardiogram (ECG), and galvanic skin response (GSR) measurements to analyze human perception of light environments.

As carriers of urban cultural memory, the lightscapes of urban historic and cultural zones constitute a vital component of diversified landscape systems. By investigating the lightscapes of Guangzhou’s historic zones, examining people’s perceptions of them, and analyzing their impacts can provide new perspectives for heritage conservation, urban renewal, and the preservation of nostalgic continuity in the historic zones across Lingnan.