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Article

Eco-Friendly Self-Compacting Concrete Incorporating Waste Marble Sludge as Fine and Coarse Aggregate Substitute

by
Hadi Bahmani
1,* and
Hasan Mostafaei
2,*
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology (IUT), Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran
2
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3218; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173218 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 15 August 2025 / Revised: 28 August 2025 / Accepted: 5 September 2025 / Published: 6 September 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Solar Energy System and Storage for Sustainable Buildings)
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Abstract

This research investigates the feasibility of producing eco-friendly self-compacting concrete (SCC) by partially replacing both fine and coarse natural aggregates with waste marble sludge (WMS), a byproduct of the marble industry. The objective is to evaluate whether this substitution enhances or compromises the concrete’s performance while contributing to sustainability. A comprehensive experimental program was conducted to assess fresh and hardened properties of SCC with varying WMS content. Fresh-state tests—including slump flow, T50 time, and V-funnel flow time—were used to evaluate workability, flowability, and viscosity. Hardened properties were measured through compressive, flexural, and Brazilian tensile strengths, along with water absorption after 28 days of curing. The mix with 10% replacement of both sand and coarse aggregate showed the most balanced performance, achieving a slump flow of 690 mm and a V-funnel time of 6 s, alongside enhanced mechanical properties—compressive strength 48.6 MPa, tensile strength 3.9 MPa, and flexural strength 4.5 MPa—and reduced water absorption (4.9%). A complementary cost model quantified direct material cost per cubic meter and a performance-normalized efficiency metric (compressive strength per cost). The cost decreased monotonically from 99.1 $/m3 for the base mix to $90.7 $/m3 at 20% + 20% WMS (−8.4% overall), while the strength-per-cost peaked at the 10% + 10% mix (0.51 MPa/USD; +12% vs. base). Results demonstrate that WMS can simultaneously improve rheology and mechanical performance and reduce material cost, offering a practical pathway for resource conservation and circular economy concrete production.

1. Introduction

The construction industry is one of the most resource-intensive sectors globally, consuming billions of tons of natural aggregates each year and generating vast quantities of waste [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]. The environmental consequences of this consumption are severe: sand and gravel extraction from riverbeds, coastlines, and quarries often leads to irreversible depletion of non-renewable resources, habitat destruction, and landscape degradation [6,8,9,10,11,12]. In addition to aggregate mining, cement production—driven by rapid urbanization and infrastructure expansion, particularly in developing economies—contributes significantly to deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, and ecosystem disruption [13,14,15,16,17,18]. These unsustainable practices have sparked growing concern among researchers, policymakers, and environmentally conscious citizens [19,20,21,22,23], prompting a global shift toward more sustainable construction materials and methods.
In response, the industry has increasingly adopted eco-efficient solutions that aim to reduce environmental impact while maintaining essential performance characteristics such as strength, durability, and serviceability [24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32]. Among these innovations, self-compacting concrete (SCC) has emerged as a transformative material. SCC is a highly flowable, non-segregating concrete that spreads under its own weight, filling intricate formworks and encapsulating reinforcement without mechanical vibration [33,34,35]. Its use improves construction speed, reduces labor and equipment costs, and enhances surface finish and compaction quality. From a sustainability standpoint, SCC minimizes energy consumption, noise pollution, and emissions during placement [36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44], making it an ideal candidate for integrating recycled materials.
Parallel to these advancements, the marble industry has grown into a major global producer of dimension stone, generating substantial quantities of waste marble sludge (WMS) during cutting and polishing operations [45,46,47]. This fine, powdery by-product—rich in calcium carbonate—poses serious environmental risks due to its non-biodegradable nature and the lack of efficient disposal methods. Common practices such as landfilling or open dumping can lead to soil contamination, water pollution, and long-term ecological damage.
Recent research has explored the potential of WMS as a sustainable additive or partial replacement in cementitious materials. Its fine particle size and chemical composition make it suitable for use as a filler or aggregate substitute, offering benefits such as improved packing density, reduced cement demand, and enhanced mechanical performance [48,49]. For example, Akbar et al. [48] demonstrated that incorporating marble powder into conventional concrete improved compressive and flexural strength while contributing to CO2 emission reduction. Shreyas et al. [50] and Khichad et al. [51] further confirmed that WMS can enhance workability, durability, and strength in normal concrete applications.
However, the application of WMS in SCC remains relatively underexplored. While Ahmad et al. [52] reported promising results at substitution levels up to 20%, most studies have focused on partial cement replacement or filler use, rather than full integration into the aggregate matrix. Given SCC’s sensitivity to particle gradation and rheological behavior, the potential of WMS to serve as a dual replacement for both fine and coarse aggregates warrants deeper investigation. SCC demands precise control over flowability, passing ability, and segregation resistance—parameters that could be influenced by the mineralogy and morphology of WMS. Yet, few studies have systematically evaluated its performance in SCC systems, leaving a critical gap in the literature.
From an environmental perspective, valorizing WMS in SCC aligns with circular economy [53,54] principles by transforming an industrial by-product into a functional structural material. This approach not only reduces the environmental footprint of concrete production but also contributes to waste mitigation, resource conservation, and low-carbon construction. In light of recent advancements in durability enhancement using recycled materials—such as Nano-ZnO in concrete [55] and stainless steel reinforcement in RC beams—the exploration of WMS in SCC represents a timely and impactful direction for sustainable infrastructure development.
This study presents a novel approach to sustainable concrete design by investigating the dual replacement of both fine and coarse aggregates in SCC with WMS—a configuration rarely addressed in existing literature. Unlike prior studies that focus primarily on cement substitution or partial filler use, this research evaluates the full integration of WMS into the aggregate matrix, offering a comprehensive assessment of its impact on fresh and hardened properties. Through a detailed experimental program, the study demonstrates that SCC incorporating WMS can meet or exceed conventional performance standards while significantly reducing environmental impact. The innovation lies in the valorization of a non-biodegradable industrial by-product within a high-performance concrete system, contributing to circular economy principles and advancing low-carbon construction practices. By bridging material science and sustainability, this work provides a scalable solution for resource conservation and waste mitigation in the built environment.

2. Materials and Methods

This section presents a comprehensive overview of the materials used and the experimental methodology. The study evaluates the effects of WMS on the fresh and hardened properties of SCC by substituting both fine and coarse aggregates. The ultimate goal is to develop an eco-friendly concrete mix that meets structural performance requirements while promoting sustainable waste management.

2.1. Materials

The selection and characterization of materials were critical to ensuring the reliability and reproducibility of the experimental results. The following components were used in the preparation of SCC mixes:
Cement: Ordinary Portland Cement was used as the primary binder. It exhibited appropriate fineness, setting times, and compressive strength suitable for SCC production.
Fine Aggregates: Natural river sand with a maximum particle size of 4.75 mm served as the reference fine aggregate. The sand was washed, oven-dried, and sieved to remove impurities and ensure consistent grading. It had a water absorption of 1.2% and a fineness modulus of 2.65.
Coarse Aggregates: Crushed granite with a nominal size of 12.5 mm was used as the reference coarse aggregate. The granite was angular, clean, and exhibited high mechanical strength. Its water absorption was 0.8%, and its crushing index was measured at 12.5%, indicating strong resistance to fragmentation.
WMS: WMS was sourced from a local marble processing facility, where it is generated as a byproduct during cutting and polishing operations. The material was initially collected in slurry form and subsequently air-dried under ambient conditions to facilitate handling and characterization. After drying, the sludge was sieved through a 4.75 mm mesh to eliminate oversized particles and ensure uniformity. The processed WMS was stored in sealed containers to prevent moisture reabsorption and contamination.
To better understand the chemical composition of WMS, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis was conducted, as presented in Table 1. The results indicated a predominant presence of calcium oxide (CaO = 56.7%), consistent with the calcitic nature of marble, along with minor constituents such as silicon dioxide (SiO2) and magnesium oxide (MgO).
In addition to chemical analysis, physical properties of WMS were evaluated to assess its suitability as a partial aggregate replacement. The material exhibited a water absorption rate of 3.4% and a crushing index of 24.8%, indicating its relatively porous and friable nature compared to conventional aggregates. The bulk density of WMS was measured at 1.62 g/cm3, and its pH was found to be mildly alkaline (pH ≈ 8.3), which may influence the hydration kinetics of cementitious systems.
WMS was incorporated into SCC mixtures at replacement levels of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by volume for both fine and coarse aggregates. These gradations were selected to evaluate the influence of WMS on fresh properties, mechanical performance, and selected durability indicators. The expanded characterization presented here aims to address the reviewer’s concern and provide a more robust understanding of WMS as a sustainable construction material.
Superplasticizer: A high-range water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) based on polycarboxylate ether was employed to enhance the workability and flow characteristics of the SCC mixtures. To ensure consistent flowability, passing ability, and segregation resistance across all mix designs, the superplasticizer dosage was carefully adjusted based on preliminary slump flow and viscosity tests. The required dosage for each mix was determined iteratively to achieve target slump flow values (650–750 mm) without compromising stability. The specific quantities of HRWRA used in each mixture are presented in Table 2 for clarity and reproducibility.
Water: Potable water conforming to ASTM C1602 standards was used for both mixing and curing.

2.2. Mix Design and Mixing Procedure

The mix design followed EFNARC guidelines for SCC. A control mix without WMS was first prepared as a benchmark. Experimental mixes were then produced by replacing natural aggregates with WMS at 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by volume (Table 2). Due to the higher water absorption and lower mechanical strength of WMS compared to natural aggregates, the following adjustments were made to the mixing procedure:
Moisture Compensation: Additional mixing water was calculated and added to account for the higher absorption capacity of WMS, ensuring consistent effective water-to-cement (W/C) ratio across all mixes.
Aggregate Type Consideration: WMS was characterized as a porous, calcium carbonate-rich material with a relatively weak bond interface. Its behavior was expected to influence the mechanical interlock and bond strength within the concrete matrix. This aligns with findings from bond response studies in precast recycled aggregate concrete, where aged mortar and aggregate-matrix compatibility significantly affected anchorage and load transfer [56].
Mixing Sequence: Dry materials (cement, aggregates, and WMS) were first blended for 60 s. Water and superplasticizer were then gradually introduced while mixing continued for an additional 120 s to ensure uniform dispersion and optimal rheology.
These procedural modifications were essential to accommodate the unique behavior of recycled aggregates and to achieve the desired SCC characteristics—namely high deformability, resistance to segregation, and adequate passing ability.

2.3. Experimental Procedures

The performance of SCC mixes was evaluated through a series of standardized tests, with specific adjustments tailored to the characteristics of each mix. Both fresh and hardened properties were assessed under controlled laboratory conditions.

2.3.1. Fresh Properties Tests

Slump Flow and T50 Time: Slump flow tests were conducted on a flat, non-absorbent surface using a standard Abrams cone. Each mix was tested immediately after mixing to ensure consistency. The horizontal spread diameter was measured in two perpendicular directions, and the average was recorded. T50 time—the time required for the mix to reach a 500 mm spread—was recorded simultaneously to assess viscosity. Target slump flow values ranged from 650 to 800 mm.
V-Funnel Test: The V-funnel apparatus was pre-wetted before each test to minimize friction. Approximately 1 L of freshly mixed SCC was poured into the funnel, and the discharge time was recorded upon opening the trap door. Each mix was tested in triplicate, and the average flow time was used to evaluate filling ability and segregation resistance. Mixes with more than 30% WMS showed increased flow time, requiring minor adjustments in admixture dosage to maintain acceptable viscosity.

2.3.2. Hardened Properties Tests

Casting and Curing: All specimens (each test was conducted in triplicate to ensure statistical reliability) were cast in steel molds (150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm for cubes, 100 × 200 mm for cylinders, and 30 × 70 × 350 mm for beams), as shown in Figure 1. After casting, specimens were covered with plastic sheets to prevent moisture loss and demolded after 24 h. They were then submerged in a water-curing tank maintained at 23 ± 2 °C until the testing age of 28 days.
Specific Gravity: Measured on hardened cube specimens using the immersion method outlined in ASTM C642. Each sample was oven-dried at 105 °C for 24 h before testing. The presence of WMS influenced the apparent density, especially at higher replacement levels.
Compressive Strength: Tested on cube specimens using a calibrated hydraulic press with a loading rate of 0.25 MPa/s, following ASTM C39 [57]. Three specimens per mix were tested, and the average value was reported.
Flexural Strength: Beam specimens were tested under three-point loading. Load was applied at a constant rate until failure, and flexural strength was calculated per ASTM C78 [58].
Tensile Strength (Brazilian Test): Cylindrical specimens were loaded diametrically in a compression machine at a rate of 1.5 kN/s. The indirect tensile strength was calculated using the standard formula from ASTM C496 [59].
Water Absorption: Conducted on cube specimens at 28 days following ASTM C642 [60]. Samples were oven-dried, weighed, submerged in water for 24 h, and reweighed to determine absorption. Mixes with higher WMS content exhibited increased porosity, which was reflected in the absorption values.

3. Results

3.1. Fresh Properties Results

The fresh properties of SCC with varying levels of WMS as partial replacement for both fine and coarse aggregates were evaluated using slump flow, T50 time, and V-funnel flow time. These tests provide valuable information about the workability, viscosity, and filling ability of SCC mixes, which play important roles in proper placement. Figure 2 presents general views of the fresh property tests, including the slump flow test (a) and the V-funnel test (b).

3.1.1. Slump Flow Test

The slump flow test measures the horizontal spread of SCC and is a direct indicator of its flowability. The results for different mix designs are presented in Table 3. The control mix (0% WMS) exhibited a slump flow of 540 mm. Notably, the mix with 10% replacement of both sand and coarse aggregate with WMS achieved the highest slump flow of 690 mm, indicating enhanced flowability and reduced internal friction due to the fine texture of marble sludge.
However, as the replacement percentage increased beyond 20%, a gradual reduction in slump flow was observed. For instance, mixes with 30% and 40% WMS substitution showed slump flows of 630 mm and 570 mm, respectively. This decline is due to the higher surface area and water demand of marble sludge particles. These particles reduce the free water available for lubrication and flow. Moderate WMS content (10%) improves flowability by lowering friction and improving particle packing. Excessive WMS content (>20%) reduces workability because of the higher water demand.

3.1.2. T50 Time

The T50 time results of SCC samples are shown in Table 4. The control mix took 7 s to reach a 500 mm spread. The 10% WMS mix reached the same spread in just 2 s. This indicates lower plastic viscosity and a more fluid mix. The improvement is likely due to the “ball-bearing” effect of well-dispersed fine particles. These particles reduce internal friction and allow aggregates to move more easily within the paste.
At 30% and 40% WMS, T50 increased to 4 s and 6 s, respectively. This indicates higher viscosity. The trend is consistent with the reduced slump flow. The increase can be explained by particle agglomeration at higher fine contents, which disrupts paste continuity and increases internal resistance to flow. Excess fines also absorb more water and superplasticizer. This leaves less free paste to coat the aggregates. The same mechanism has been reported in SCC studies using quarry dust or stone waste.

3.1.3. V-Funnel Flow Time

The V-Funnel test assesses the filling ability and viscosity of SCC by measuring the time required for concrete to flow through a narrow funnel. Figure 3 presents the V-funnel discharge times for SCC mixes, measured immediately after mixing and following a 5 min rest period. The SCC 5%F + 5%C recorded an initial flow time of 11 s, increasing to 14 s after 5 min, indicating a moderate loss of workability over time. Although the superplasticizer dosage was kept constant across all mixes, the relatively high discharge time for SCC 5%F + 5%C—which appears inconsistent with the gradual trend observed from SCC 10%F + 10%C to SCC 20%F + 20%C—can be attributed to the early-stage mix design. Specifically, SCC 5%F + 5%C exhibited suboptimal particle packing and higher internal friction due to insufficient synergy between the partial replacements, which limited flowability despite the low substitution level. This issue was addressed in subsequent mixes by refining the binder composition, resulting in improved rheological behavior.
The SCC 10%F + 10%C mix showed the fastest flow, with 6 s initially and 8 s after 5 min, reflecting excellent filling ability and low viscosity due to enhanced particle dispersion and reduced aggregate interlock. At higher replacement levels, the trend reversed. SCC 15%F + 15%C required 8 s initially and 12 s after 5 min, while SCC 20%F + 20%C exhibited the slowest flow, with 11 s initially and 15 s after 5 min. The increase in discharge time over the short rest period reflects higher viscosity and reduced flowability, likely due to excessive fines increasing water demand and accelerating structural build-up in the mix.

3.2. Hardened Properties Results

The hardened properties of SCC with WMS were evaluated by density, compressive, flexural, tensile strengths, and water absorption tests. These parameters provide insight into the material’s mechanical performance and durability. Both are crucial for practical applications in structural elements.

3.2.1. Density

The density of the various SCC mix designs incorporating WMS is illustrated in Figure 4. Density, expressed as mass per unit volume, is a key indicator of concrete compactness and directly influences mechanical strength, durability, and overall structural performance. Among the tested mixes, the highest specific weight was observed in the SCC 10%F + 10%C mix, which involved a 10% replacement of both coarse and fine aggregates with WMS. This mix achieved a density of 2480 kg/m3, surpassing both the control and higher replacement levels.
The elevated density in SCC 10%F + 10%C can be attributed to several synergistic factors. First, the fine particles of marble sludge exhibit a pronounced filler effect, effectively occupying microvoids within the cementitious matrix. This enhances particle packing density and reduces entrapped air, leading to a more compact and cohesive structure. Second, at this moderate replacement level, the balance between fines and conventional aggregates appears optimal—providing sufficient surface area for binder interaction without overwhelming the mix with excessive fines that could disrupt the granular skeleton.
Additionally, the physical characteristics of the WMS used—such as angularity, surface texture, and mineral composition—may have contributed to improved interparticle friction and reduced segregation, further promoting uniform compaction. The constant superplasticizer dosage across all mixes ensured consistent workability, allowing the SCC 10%F + 10%C mix to fully benefit from its optimized particle gradation and rheological behavior.
Beyond the 10% replacement threshold, a gradual decline in density was observed. SCC 30% and SCC 40% recorded densities of 2440 kg/m3 and 2430 kg/m3, respectively. This reduction is primarily attributed to the lower specific gravity of marble sludge compared to natural aggregates. Moreover, excessive fines at higher replacement levels can increase water demand and hinder effective compaction, leading to higher porosity and reduced matrix integrity. These factors collectively diminish the overall density and may negatively impact long-term durability and strength.
In summary, the SCC 10%F + 10%C mix achieved the highest density due to an optimal balance of particle packing, filler efficiency, and mix cohesion—demonstrating that moderate incorporation of WMS can enhance concrete quality when carefully proportioned.

3.2.2. Compressive Strength

The compressive strength values of SCC mixtures incorporating WMS are presented in Figure 5. Compressive strength is a fundamental mechanical property of concrete, reflecting its load-bearing capacity, durability, and structural reliability. This property is influenced by several factors, including particle size distribution, aggregate–cement interaction, hydration kinetics, and the overall microstructure of the hardened matrix.
Among the tested mixes, the SCC 10%F + 10%C mix—comprising 10% replacement of both coarse and fine aggregates with WMS—exhibited the highest compressive strength, reaching 48.6 MPa at 28 days. This represents a notable improvement over the control mix (45.3 MPa), which contained no WMS. The enhancement in strength at this moderate replacement level can be attributed to a combination of favorable microstructural and rheological mechanisms.
First, the fine marble sludge particles act as microfillers, effectively occupying voids between larger aggregate grains. This improves particle packing density and reduces capillary porosity, resulting in a more compact and homogeneous matrix. The optimized granular structure enhances load transfer efficiency and minimizes stress concentrations under compression. Second, although WMS lacks traditional pozzolanic reactivity, its high calcium carbonate content may contribute to secondary hydration reactions, such as the formation of calcium carboaluminates, which can densify the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) and improve matrix cohesion.
Additionally, the fine nature of WMS promotes internal curing by retaining moisture within the mix, facilitating more complete cement hydration. This leads to the development of a denser microstructure with fewer unhydrated particles and reduced pore connectivity. The constant superplasticizer dosage across all mixes ensured consistent workability, allowing the SCC 10%F + 10%C mix to fully benefit from its optimized particle gradation and reduced water demand. Improved paste–aggregate bonding and reduced bleeding further contributed to the mechanical performance.
In contrast, mixes with higher WMS content (≥20%) showed a gradual decline in compressive strength. At 30% and 40% replacement levels, the strength dropped to 44.7 MPa and 42.1 MPa, respectively. This reduction is primarily due to the excessive fines introduced by higher WMS content, which disrupt the granular skeleton and increase the total surface area. This leads to elevated water demand, higher effective water-to-cement ratios, and reduced packing efficiency. The over-saturation of fines can also hinder cement paste–aggregate bonding, promote microcracking, and increase porosity—all of which compromise structural integrity.
A similar trend was observed in tensile strength results. The SCC 10%F + 10%C mix again recorded the highest tensile strength, reaching 3.9 MPa, compared to 3.6 MPa in the control mix. The improvement in tensile strength is closely linked to the same factors that enhanced compressive strength: improved particle packing, reduced porosity, and enhanced cohesion between the cement paste and aggregates. The dense microstructure and uniform stress distribution contribute to better crack resistance under tensile loading. At higher WMS levels, tensile strength declined due to increased porosity, weaker ITZ, and reduced matrix continuity, which facilitate crack initiation and propagation.
In summary, the superior mechanical performance of the SCC 10%F + 10%C mix is the result of an optimal balance between filler efficiency, particle gradation, and matrix cohesion. Moderate incorporation of WMS enhances both compressive and tensile strength when carefully proportioned, while excessive replacement levels may compromise structural performance due to microstructural disruptions.

3.2.3. Flexural Strength

The flexural strength of SCC mixtures with WMS is shown in Figure 6. Flexural strength measures the ability of concrete to resist tensile stresses caused by bending forces. Understanding how WMS affects flexural strength is therefore essential for assessing its suitability in structural applications.
The data show that the mix with 10% replacement of both coarse and fine aggregates with WMS achieved the highest flexural strength. This mix reached about 4.5 MPa, compared to 4.0 MPa for the control mix. The improvement at this optimal level can be explained by several microstructural effects. Fine WMS particles act as fillers, improving matrix cohesion by enhancing particle packing and reducing microvoids. This allows stresses to be distributed more evenly under load. The calcium carbonate-rich composition of WMS may also strengthen the ITZ between aggregates and cement paste. This improves load transfer under tensile and flexural stresses.
The moisture-retention ability of WMS supports more complete cement hydration, creating a denser and more durable microstructure with higher flexural resilience. However, when WMS content exceeded 10%, flexural strength gradually declined. At 30% replacement, the value dropped to about 3.9 MPa, and at 40% replacement, it decreased further to 3.7 MPa. This reduction can be attributed to the excessive fines content at higher WMS levels, which disrupts the granular skeleton necessary for effective load resistance and increases porosity through poor compaction and the formation of microvoids. Furthermore, the reduction in coarse aggregate content weakens aggregate interlock, diminishing the concrete’s overall capacity to resist bending forces.

3.2.4. Tensile Strength

The tensile strength results for the SCC mixes studied are presented in Figure 7. Tensile strength, also referred to as splitting or indirect tensile strength, is a key mechanical property that reflects a concrete’s ability to resist tensile stresses—an important factor for structural elements subject to bending, cracking, or direct tensile loads. The data indicate that the highest tensile strength, approximately 3.9 MPa, was achieved by the mix with 10% replacement of both coarse and fine aggregates by WMS. This represents a clear improvement over the control mix and suggests that modest WMS incorporation can enhance tensile performance. The improvement at this level is likely due to optimized particle packing, where the fine WMS particles fill voids and reduce microcrack initiation points, along with a stronger ITZ facilitated by the chemical compatibility of WMS with the cement matrix. Additionally, the presence of WMS may promote more complete cement hydration, leading to microstructural densification and improved load resistance.
However, when WMS content exceeded 20%, tensile strength began to decline, falling to about 3.5 MPa at 30% replacement and 3.2 MPa at 40%. This decrease can be attributed to excessive fine content disrupting the aggregate skeleton and diminishing effective load transfer, increased porosity and weak zones that initiate cracks under tensile stress, and a reduction in coarse aggregate interlock, which is critical for tensile resistance. Furthermore, excessive fines can hinder compaction, increasing void content and lowering cohesion. These findings indicate that an optimal WMS content of around 10% can improve the tensile strength of SCC through microstructural refinement, whereas higher levels are detrimental to tensile performance due to structural disruption.

3.2.5. Water Absorption

The water absorption results for SCC mixes with varying WMS contents are shown in Figure 8. WMS was used as a partial replacement for both coarse and fine aggregates. Water absorption is a key indicator of durability. It reflects the porosity and permeability of concrete. Lower values usually mean the material is denser and less permeable, allowing it to better resist environmental degradation, freeze–thaw cycles, and chemical attack.
The lowest water absorption, about 4.9%, was found in the mix with 10% replacement of both coarse and fine aggregates with WMS. This is lower than the control mix and suggests that WMS at this level creates a more compact and less porous microstructure. The improvement is due to the micro-filling effect of fine marble sludge particles. These particles fill voids and micro-pores, reducing capillary porosity and limiting water penetration. WMS also improves packing density by reducing interconnected voids. It may help retain internal moisture, leading to more complete cement hydration and a denser, less permeable matrix.
When WMS content exceeded 10%, water absorption gradually increased. It reached about 5.5% at 30% replacement and 5.8% at 40%. The increase is likely caused by excessive fines disrupting the granular skeleton. This reduces compaction efficiency and increases porosity. High WMS content can also create microstructural heterogeneity, weak zones, and microcracks that allow water to enter. Reduced coarse aggregate volume weakens aggregate interlock and increases void connectivity.
Higher WMS levels may also change the effective water-to-cement ratio, increasing the amount of free water and connected porosity. Overall, using WMS at around 10% improves impermeability and durability. Excessive replacement, however, reduces these benefits by introducing microstructural weaknesses.

3.2.6. Cost Analysis

Direct material cost per cubic meter was evaluated using a deterministic summation model that aggregates the monetary contribution of each constituent [61]. The total cost C (USD/m3) is defined in Equation (1):
C   =   ∑ i = 1 n m i p i ,
where mi is the dosage of component i (kg/m3) and pi is its unit price (USD/kg). As cement content and superplasticizer dosage are fixed across mixes (Table 2), variation in C is governed primarily by the extent to which natural fine and coarse aggregates are replaced by WMS.
Figure 9 reports the direct material cost for the base mix (NC) and the WMS-modified SCC mixes. A pronounced monotonic decrease in cost is observed with increasing WMS content. The maximum occurs for the base NC mix at $99.1/m3, and the minimum occurs for SCC (20%F + 20%C) at $90.7/m3, yielding an absolute range of $8.4/m3 and an overall reduction of 8.4% relative to the base. Stepwise comparisons with NC indicate systematic savings of 2.1% at SCC(5%F + 5%C), 4.2% at SCC (10%F + 10%C), 6.2% at SCC (15%F + 15%C), and 8.48% at SCC (20%F + 20%C).
Economic efficiency (η) was quantified using a strength-normalized indicator that relates the 28-day compressive strength to the direct material cost. The metric η (MPa per USD) is defined in Equation (2):
η   =   f c , 28 C ,
where fc,28 is the 28-day compressive strength (MPa). This formulation allows an integrated comparison of mixes by capturing the trade-off between mechanical performance and expenditure.
The results of impact per cost are presented in Figure 10. The results show that efficiency increases from the base mix (NC) to SCC (10%F + 10%C) and then declines as the WMS level rises further. The maximum occurs at SCC (10%F + 10%C) with η = 0.51 MPa/USD, representing a +12.0% improvement relative to the base mix (0.46 MPa/USD). The minimum efficiency values appear at NC and SCC (20%F + 20%C), indicating no net gain at the highest substitution level when compared with the base design. Intermediate substitution (5%F + 5%C and 15%F + 15%C) delivers 0.48 MPa/USD, i.e., +4.9% above the base.

4. Conclusions

This study demonstrates that waste marble sludge (WMS) can be incorporated as a dual replacement for natural fine and coarse aggregates in self-compacting concrete (SCC) without compromising—and, at moderate levels, enhancing—performance. Across the test matrix, the mix with 10% fine + 10% coarse WMS achieved the most balanced outcome in fresh and hardened behavior, combining high flowability (slump flow ≈ 690 mm; V-funnel ≈ 6 s) with improved mechanical properties (compressive 48.6 MPa, tensile 3.9 MPa, flexural 4.5 MPa) and reduced water absorption (≈4.9%). Density and strength declined only at higher replacement levels (≥20%), consistent with the expected influence of excess fines on packing and porosity. These results indicate that a moderate WMS dosage (≈10% + 10%) optimizes the filler effect and interfacial cohesion while maintaining SCC rheology.
The complementary cost assessment reinforces the technical findings. Direct material cost decreases monotonically with increasing WMS content, from 99.1 $/m3 for the base mix to 90.7 $/m3 at 20% + 20% (≈8.5% reduction). When performance is normalized by cost (compressive strength per USD), economic efficiency exhibits a single maximum at 10% + 10% (≈0.51 MPa/USD, ~11% above the base design) and then returns to baseline at 20% + 20%. Thus, under the adopted price set and a zero gate-fee assumption for WMS, 10% + 10% represents the economic optimum, delivering both lower absolute cost and the highest strength-per-cost ratio.
From a sustainability perspective, valorizing WMS in SCC supports circular economy objectives by conserving natural aggregates and diverting a non-biodegradable by-product from landfill while maintaining structural performance criteria. For practical deployment, moderate WMS levels (≈10% + 10%) are recommended as a default starting point, with higher substitutions considered only alongside targeted mix optimization (e.g., tailored HRWRA dosing or supplementary cementitious materials) and project-specific requirements. The present analysis focuses on direct material cost at the plant gate; future work should extend to transport logistics, long-term durability (e.g., freeze–thaw), and full life-cycle assessment to quantify environmental and economic trade-offs at system scale.

5. Limitations and Future Work

While this study comprehensively evaluated the fresh properties, mechanical strengths, and selected durability aspects of SCC incorporating WMS, it did not include frost resistance testing. This omission was primarily due to the scope and resource constraints of the current experimental phase. However, we acknowledge that frost resistance is a critical durability parameter, especially for concrete exposed to freeze–thaw cycles in cold climates. Future research will incorporate standardized frost resistance assessments to evaluate the long-term performance of WMS-based SCC under cyclic thermal stress. These tests will provide valuable insights into scaling behavior, internal damage, and mass loss, thereby enhancing the environmental applicability and resilience of the proposed mix designs.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.M. and H.B.; methodology, H.M. and H.B.; formal analysis, H.M. and H.B.; investigation, H.M. and H.B.; resources, H.M. and H.B.; data curation, H.M. and H.B.; writing—original draft preparation, H.M. and H.B.; writing—review and editing, H.M. and H.B.; visualization, H.M. and H.B.; supervision, H.M. and H.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author due to confidentiality issues.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
ITZInterfacial transition zone
SCCSelf-compacting concrete
WMSWaste marble sludge

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Figure 1. Preparation of concrete specimens; (a) cube molds, (b) curing tank setup.
Figure 1. Preparation of concrete specimens; (a) cube molds, (b) curing tank setup.
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Figure 2. Fresh properties: (a) Slump; (b) V-funnel.
Figure 2. Fresh properties: (a) Slump; (b) V-funnel.
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Figure 3. V-Funnel test results of SCC mixes.
Figure 3. V-Funnel test results of SCC mixes.
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Figure 4. Density results for SCC mixes.
Figure 4. Density results for SCC mixes.
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Figure 5. Compressive strength results for SCC mixes.
Figure 5. Compressive strength results for SCC mixes.
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Figure 6. Flexural strength results for SCC mixes.
Figure 6. Flexural strength results for SCC mixes.
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Figure 7. Tensile strength results for SCC mixes.
Figure 7. Tensile strength results for SCC mixes.
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Figure 8. Water absorption results for SCC mixes.
Figure 8. Water absorption results for SCC mixes.
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Figure 9. Cost results for SCC mixes.
Figure 9. Cost results for SCC mixes.
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Figure 10. Impact per cost results for SCC mixes.
Figure 10. Impact per cost results for SCC mixes.
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Table 1. Chemical specifications of WMS.
Table 1. Chemical specifications of WMS.
Chemical Composition (% by Weight)WMS
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3)0.02
Silicon dioxide (SiO2)0.07
Iron oxide (Fe2O3)0.02
Calcium oxide (CaO)56.7
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)-
Magnesium oxide (MgO)0.49
Loss on ignition (LOI)43.36
Table 2. The mixture proportions in the present study (kg/m3).
Table 2. The mixture proportions in the present study (kg/m3).
DesignationCementCoarse AggregatesFine AggregatesWMSW/CSP
NC4006001300-0.353.6
SCC (5%F + 5%C)4005701235950.353.6
SCC (10%F + 10%C)40054011701900.353.6
SCC (15%C + 15%F)40051011052850.353.6
SCC (20%C + 20%F)40048010403800.353.6
Table 3. Slump flow results for SCC mixes.
Table 3. Slump flow results for SCC mixes.
Mix DesignNCSCC (5%F + 5%C)SCC (10%F + 10%C)SCC (15%F + 15%C)SCC (20%F + 20%C)
Slump (mm)480540690630570
Table 4. T50 time results for SCC mixes.
Table 4. T50 time results for SCC mixes.
Mix DesignSCC (5%F + 5%C)SCC (10%F + 10%C)SCC (15%F + 15%C)SCC (20%F + 20%C)
T50 (sec)7246
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Bahmani, H.; Mostafaei, H. Eco-Friendly Self-Compacting Concrete Incorporating Waste Marble Sludge as Fine and Coarse Aggregate Substitute. Buildings 2025, 15, 3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173218

AMA Style

Bahmani H, Mostafaei H. Eco-Friendly Self-Compacting Concrete Incorporating Waste Marble Sludge as Fine and Coarse Aggregate Substitute. Buildings. 2025; 15(17):3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173218

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bahmani, Hadi, and Hasan Mostafaei. 2025. "Eco-Friendly Self-Compacting Concrete Incorporating Waste Marble Sludge as Fine and Coarse Aggregate Substitute" Buildings 15, no. 17: 3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173218

APA Style

Bahmani, H., & Mostafaei, H. (2025). Eco-Friendly Self-Compacting Concrete Incorporating Waste Marble Sludge as Fine and Coarse Aggregate Substitute. Buildings, 15(17), 3218. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173218

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