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Article

Eco-Friendly Bitumen Composites with Polymer and Rubber Waste for Sustainable Construction

by
Gaini Zhumagalievna Seitenova
1,
Rizagul Muslimovna Dyussova
2,
Daulet Abaykhanovich Aspanbetov
3,
Assel Yermekovna Jexembayeva
4,
Kinga Korniejenko
5,*,
Lyazat Aruova
6 and
Darkhan Kuandykovich Sakanov
7
1
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Kazhymukan Str. 13, r205, Astana 010008, Kazakhstan
2
Department of Mechanics and Oil and Gas Engineering, Toraigyrov University, Pavlodar 140000, Kazakhstan
3
Innovation Consulting Group LLP, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
4
Innovation Development Department, Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Kazhymukan Str. 13, r205, Astana 010008, Kazakhstan
5
Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, 37 Jana Pawła II Street, 31864 Cracow, Poland
6
Faculty of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Gumilyov Eurasian National University, Kazhymukan Str. 13, r205, Astana 010008, Kazakhstan
7
Department of Industrial Civil and Transport Construction, Toraigyrov University, Pavlodar 140000, Kazakhstan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2608; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152608
Submission received: 8 June 2025 / Revised: 18 July 2025 / Accepted: 21 July 2025 / Published: 23 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

The modern road industry requires a more effective solution according to efficiency and minimizing environmental burden. This article discusses the use of recycled materials to modify bitumen binders within the concept of the circular economy. The main aim of this article was to create a new composite based on waste materials, including polymer waste and rubber crumb. The important element is the usage of locally available waste that has not been investigated previously as a material for asphalt modification. The prepared composition was preliminarily assessed according to chemical composition. Next, research dedicated to road application was conducted, including the following: determination of the resistance to hardening, aging under the influence of high temperature and air, as well as oxidation processes, assessment of penetration, and evaluation of the softening point. The conducted studies showed that the new composites with the addition of polymer waste and rubber crumb improve the thermal stability, elasticity, and resistance of bitumen to aging. Optimum concentrations of modifiers were determined that provide an increase in the performance characteristics of bitumen, including a decrease in the brittleness temperature and an increase in the softening temperature. The obtained results demonstrate the potential for the introduction of new composites based on recycled materials in road construction, contributing to increased environmental sustainability and economic efficiency.

1. Introduction

Research into polymer modification of bitumen began in the 1960s and 1970s to increase the durability of road surfaces by improving heat resistance, deformation resistance, and aging resistance [1,2]. At that time, modification was carried out using virgin materials to improve road properties. At the first stages, styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS), ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), polypropylene (PP), rubber crumb, and polyethylene (PE) were used [3]. These modifications made it possible to adapt bitumen to climatic and operational conditions, making the technology in demand worldwide [2].
The next important step for the development of the research in this area was the Strategic Highway Research Program. It laid the foundation for Superpave technology. Its implementation stages included the development of a mixed-design methodology, performance grading classification (1987–1993), pilot testing (1993–2000), large-scale implementation (2000–2010), and international expansion (since 2010). Superpave integrated polymer-modified bitumen and recycled materials, ensuring the technology’s global acceptance [4,5].
Currently, bitumen modification is investigated mainly in an environmental context, using waste materials [6,7]. The ecological context gains significant meaning in many countries that allow new composites to be obtained for road construction [8,9]. Modern research indicates that the incorporation of polymer waste (PET, HDPE, LDPE, and PS) into bitumen enhances its properties, including increased softening temperature, reduced brittleness, and improved adhesion [10,11]. Polymer waste (e.g., shoe soles and residues from the 3D printing process) provides similar results to virgin materials at a lower cost [12,13]. Using plastic waste reduces landfill pressure, lowers the carbon footprint, and improves the sustainability of coatings [14,15,16,17]. It should also be noticed that in the case of road application, it is crucial to use locally available waste because it achieves the best environmental effect [18,19].
One of the most promising groups of polymers that can be added to roads is rubber waste, including the possible additive to asphalt, crumb rubber. Different amounts of additives have been studied in the literature before. The particular amount should be experimentally selected, depending on local conditions (type of waste, asphalt requirements, etc.). In the wet method, the percentage is usually between 10% and up to 30% [9,20]. In the dry method, the recommended amount of additives is lower, usually up 3% [9]. Previous investigation shows that this type of asphalt has a lot of advantages. It has very good functional and structural performance during rehabilitation [9,21]. Crumb rubber also improves low-temperature properties and crack resistance. The results obtained by Santagata et al. [20] show that the maximum values were obtained for 22% rubber crumb addition—the swelling rate reached 160 cP/min and degradation 55 cP/min [20]. However, these types of additives can cause other problems, including a lack of research connected with the evolution of swelling and degradation phenomena with the chemo-structural properties of the modified bitumen [20]. The use of waste rubber pyrolysis improves plasticity but requires processing to improve rutting resistance [22,23]. An important point for increasing the interest in the application of rubber waste is also the environmental benefits. The production of this type of bitumen emits similar levels of O2, N2, CO2, NOx, and SO2 as unmodified asphalt but less CO and CH4 [9]. Moreover, some research shows that this kind of composite is energy-saving and cost-effective compared to traditional pavement [9,24].
Also, other industrial wastes such as oil sludge, fly ash, and cement dust show potential in combined modifications. Oil sludge improves the performance of bitumen, especially when combined with polymers such as SBS and EVA [25]. Ash and cement dust increase rutting resistance and frost resistance [26].
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) confirms that recycled materials extend the service life of pavements, reduce the thickness of asphalt layers, and reduce production costs [24,27,28]. The use of recycled waste improves the environmental performance of road construction and promotes the development of sustainable technologies [29,30,31]. The studies used bitumen grades BND 40/60–130/200, including bitumen extracted from recycled asphalt pavement (RAP) [28]. Modification of bitumen with secondary materials opens up prospects for increasing the durability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability of road surfaces [24,32].
The literature shows that the modification of bitumen with polymers is a promising direction in road construction. Of particular relevance is the use of rubber crumb, which has a positive effect on the environmental situation. A polymer-modified bitumen binder offers increased heat resistance, resistance to deformation, and durability of road surfaces, which is important for extreme climatic conditions, such as Kazakhstan, Poland, and many other countries. One of the most important elements of this kind of investigation is to find the locally available waste to be used for asphalt production. The planned source of waste has not been explored previously for this purpose. The main aim of this study is to create a new composite based on waste materials, including polymer waste and rubber crumbs, using additives that came from locally available sources. This waste has not been explored yet as a potential additive for asphalt manufacturing. The first step is to develop a polymer-modified bitumen binder from secondary materials (rubber crumb). Then, their characteristics are evaluated and the advantages of the polymer-modified binder are presented. This article finalizes the discussion of the obtained results and compares them with the literature. The provided research shows novel possibilities for the effective management of large amounts of waste in the road industry. This research is consistent with the latest trends connected with implementing recycled aggregates and additives into road construction.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The basic materials for the matrix were two kinds of bitumen: bitumen grades BND 60/90, provided by Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP (Pavlodar, Republic of Kazakhstan)—Table 1—and BND 60/90, provided by Caspi Bitum LLP (Aktau, Republic of Kazakhstan)—Table 2.
Bitumen of this grade is characterized by high viscosity and is widely used to produce road surfaces, possessing the necessary characteristics for operation in various climatic conditions.
As a reinforcement, rubber crumb of the FPMB brand is used. This additive was applied as a modifier in the process of preparing the polymer–bitumen binder (PBB). The rubber of the FPMB brand was imported from China. The oxide characteristics of the used waste are presented in Table 3.
The limitation of this method is a lack of possibility of detecting two basic ingredients of the waste: carbon and nitrogen (the air was used as a medium for analysis) [33]. Despite this limitation, an interesting point for the provided research is the appearance of other elements, possibly reactive components from bitumen ingredients and potentially harmful. The main components are SO3 and P2O5. The occurrence of these elements in the composition is in line with general knowledge about additives provided to rubber mixtures. All confirmed elements overall have the general composition of standard rubber waste [34].
Also, an FTIR analysis was provided for rubber crumbs—Figure 1. The main aim of the FTIR analysis was the determination of bonding and confirmation of predicted mechanisms and chemical reactions, as well as the obtained components.
Based on FTIR, it was possible to identify some basic bonding in the material. The peaks around 2800 cm−1 and 2900 cm−1 can be assigned to methyl (CH3) and methylene (CH2) groups [35]. Also, the peaks around 1450 cm−1 and 700 cm−1 confirm this kind of bonding inside the material, with possible some deformations [36,37]. The peaks around 1600 cm−1 are probably connected with C-C bonds [38]. Also, the peaks at 900 cm−1 and 950 cm−1 are connected with this kind of bond [36,37].
Based on the FTIR analysis, it can be predicted that the main elements that will react in materials are connected with H, C, S, O, and N atoms [39]. The main chemical interactions are anticipated to be between H, C, S, and O, which is confirmed by visible vibrations. The main reaction connected with N is usually observed at 3665 cm−1, and in the analyzed material, it is not visible as a peak [39]. It is worth mentioning that the influence on the mechanical properties of the rubber additive can be observed not only on the molecular scale, but also as structural changes in the materials [39,40]. An interesting point is also the possibility for selective absorption of the light components of asphalt through the rubber particles [40].
The main purpose of the implementation of FPMB in bitumen is to correct the viscosity of the mixture and improve its technological characteristics. The use of this material helps to increase the adhesive properties and resistance of PBB to aging processes [41,42]. FPMB was added to the mix at the preparation stage under strictly controlled conditions to achieve the best quality indicators of the polymer–bitumen binder.

2.2. Preparation of Mixtures

The process of sample preparation is presented in Figure 2.
The mixing jars were pre-washed and dried to ensure the cleanliness and accuracy of the experiment. They were checked for contamination and moisture before use. The jar was filled with the selected grade of bitumen. Then, FPMB was added in an amount of 4–9% of the bitumen weight (in the following percentages: 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 8.0, and 9.0%). The mixing process of each mixture was carried out using a disperser for 1–2 h at a temperature of 180 °C, which ensured uniform distribution of the components. The mixture was thoroughly mixed until completely homogeneous. After that, the samples were tested in the laboratory, and the details, including the temperature of testing, are given in Section 2.3.

2.3. Methods

A BRUKER XRF Jaguar 600 (Bruker Physik GmbH, Billerica, MA, USA) was used to determine the composition of the FPMB additive. The S6 JAGUAR supports up to four analysis crystals and two detectors, allowing for rapid multi-element analysis in the concentration range from ppm to 100%.
To study the chemical composition and structural properties of the material, an IRTracer-100 (Shimadzu Corp., Kyoto, Japan) was used, a high-performance Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer designed for precise material analysis. One of the key characteristics is compliance with international standards for FTIR analysis.
According to EN 12607-1 [41], aging under the influence of high temperature and air (RTFOT method) was determined. To evaluate the aging processes of polymer–bitumen binders (PBBs), a RTFOT (Rolling Thin Film Oven Test) test oven, model 20-25720 (Infratest Prüftechnik GmbH, Brackenheim, Germany), was used—Figure A1a. This method simulates accelerated aging of materials under the influence of high temperature and oxidation processes, creating conditions as close as possible to real operational ones.
The aging tests were carried out as follows: PBB samples were placed in a thin layer in glass cylinders, which rotated inside the furnace at a temperature of 163 °C for 75 min. During the test, hot air was continuously supplied to the working chamber, which contributed to the intensive oxidation of the bitumen mixture. Upon completion of the tests, the samples were analyzed for changes in key characteristics, such as viscosity, weight loss, and elasticity.
This method allowed us to objectively evaluate the resistance of the PBB to thermal aging and identify changes in the structure and properties of the material during operation. The change in the mass of the sample after aging is determined as a percentage change in mass according to the following formula:
∆ = M 1 − M 2 M 1 − M 0 · 100 %
where
Δ—change in mass of sample in container after aging, %;
M0—mass of glass container, g;
M1—mass of glass container with bitumen before aging, g;
M2—weight of glass container with bitumen after aging, g.
Eight samples were used for measurements. Two samples were used for calculations. The results of the mass change of these samples should not differ from each other by more than 0.2%. This requirement allows for minimizing errors and guarantees the reliability of the results when analyzing the resistance of PBB materials to aging.
The RTFOT test rig allows for the evaluation of bitumen mass loss under high temperatures. Up to eight PBB samples placed in glass vessels are rotated in a drum at 163 °C at 15 rpm. An air flow of 4000 mL/min is applied to the samples, which changes the fractional composition of the PBB and simulates the aging process. The rig is equipped with a viewing window, temperature controller, fan, and control thermometer to maintain stable test conditions.
To determine the depth of needle penetration at 25 °C (not less than 0.1 mm), tests were carried out in accordance with ASTM D5 [42] using an automatic digital penetrometer model 20-20670 (Infratest Prüftechnik GmbH, Brackenheim, Germany)—Figure A1b.
The test procedure was as follows: PBB samples were placed in a metal container and cooled to 25 °C (laboratory temperature). After the temperature stabilized, a needle with a set load (usually 100 g) was slowly lowered onto the surface of the sample. The depth of penetration of the needle was measured in millimeters and recorded. This method provides an accurate measurement of the viscosity of PBB materials and their suitability for various operating conditions.
Ring and Ball Softening Point: This parameter was determined using an automated Infratest instrument (Infratest Prüftechnik GmbH, Brackenheim, Germany) that complies with ASTM D36/AASHTO T53 [43].
The testing procedure included the following steps: Samples of the PBB mixture were preheated to a temperature of 80–100 °C above the expected softening point, but not lower than 120 °C and not higher than 180 °C, to remove moisture. The dehydrated material was filtered and thoroughly mixed to remove air bubbles, after which the excess PBB was poured into two metal rings. After cooling to room temperature, the excess material was cut off with a heated knife.
The rings with the PBB and steel balls pre-cooled to 5 ± 1 °C were placed in a water bath at the same temperature. Then the water temperature was increased at a rate of 5.0 ± 0.5 °C per min. The test was carried out until the balls were immersed in the PBB material and touched the bottom plate. The temperature at this point was recorded as the softening temperature of the material. Strict adherence to the heating rate ensured high accuracy of the test results.
The methodology used for determining the softening point of polymer–bitumen binders meets the requirements of the standards to obtain reliable and reproducible results. For the statistical analysis, the average values were determined for three test repetitions for the investigations.

3. Results

A range of PBB formulations from 4 to 9% additive content was investigated to identify the optimal recipe—Table 4.
Figure 3 presents the effect of FPMB concentration on PBB properties.
Increasing the FPMB concentration significantly affects the properties of the mixture. At a concentration of 4–5%, the penetration is within the standard (86.5–90.5 mm), but the softening temperature is below the standard level (52.7–53.6 °C), which indicates insufficient heat resistance. With 6%, an improvement in heat resistance is observed, while the softening temperature reaches the minimum standard values (58.9 °C) and the penetration decreases to 73.6 mm, indicating an increase in hardness.
At a concentration of 6.5–7%, the softening temperature exceeds the minimum standard (60.8 °C) and the penetration remains at the lower limit of the norm (71.05–72.7 mm). Concentrations above 7% lead to an increase in the softness of the material, but at 9%, the softening temperature reaches 69.4 °C, providing excellent heat resistance compared to European (PN) and GOST standards (Russian standards applied also in Kazakhstan) [44,45]. Thus, an FPMB concentration of 6% and higher helps to improve the characteristics of the mixture, achieving the standard indicators (Figure 3).
The results show that mixing time has a significant effect on the properties of the bitumen and 6% FPMB mixture—Figure 4.
It is worth noticing the following:
  • 90 min: The penetration depth is 60.9 mm, indicating high hardness of the material. The softening temperature is 57.5 °C, close to the standard, providing acceptable heat resistance.
  • 30 min: The penetration depth increases to 81.3 mm, reflecting a softer structure. The softening temperature is 56.6 °C, slightly below the standard, indicating a decrease in heat resistance.
Increasing the mixing time to 90 min improves the hardness and heat resistance of the mixture, confirming its importance in achieving optimal material properties.
Table 5 presents the data on the mass change of the bitumen samples with FPMB after the RTFOT oven aging test.
BND 60/90 (Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP) + 6% FPMB: The mass change is 0–0.15%, indicating insignificant mass loss and good resistance to aging.
BND 60/90 (Caspi Bitum LLP) + 7% FPMB: The mass change varies within 0–0.05%, demonstrating excellent stability and resistance to thermal–oxidative aging.
Both compositions showed high stability, with the bitumen of Caspi Bitum LLP with 7% FPMB providing better stability. These results confirm the positive effect of FPMB on the durability of bitumen mixtures, making them suitable for use in conditions requiring increased resistance.
The results of the softening temperature for the first composite are presented in Table 6.
Before aging, the value was 70.6 °C, and after aging, it decreased to 59 °C. A decrease in the softening temperature indicates a loss of heat resistance of the material, which may be a consequence of the weakening of the structure of the mixture under the influence of high temperatures and oxidation processes.
Needle penetration depth: Before aging, the value was 81 mm, and after aging it decreased to 69 mm. A decrease in the value indicates an increase in the hardness of the bitumen after aging, which may be due to its structural modification.
The results of the softening temperature for the second composite are presented in Table 7.
Table 8 shows the changes in the bitumen characteristics after aging. Softening temperature (BND 60/90, Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP, 6% FPMB) increased from 58.9 °C to 61.4 °C, indicating an increase in heat resistance and an improvement in the structure of the material. Needle penetration depth decreased from 73.6 mm to 49.3 mm, indicating an increase in the rigidity and structural strength of the bitumen.
BND 60/90 (Caspi Bitum LLP, 7% FPMB): After aging, the softening temperature decreased, indicating a loss of heat resistance, but the depth of needle penetration also decreased, indicating an increase in the rigidity of the material.
The mixture of Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP with 6% FPMB showed the best results in heat resistance and rigidity after aging, indicating its high-performance characteristics. The mixture of Caspi Bitum LLP with 7% FPMB demonstrates resistance to cracking due to increased rigidity, despite a decrease in heat resistance, which results in better resistance of the material.
These results indicate a difference in the behavior of various PBB mixture compositions during aging, which is important to consider when choosing materials for road surfaces under extreme temperatures and long-term exposure. The normal behavior is connected with an increase in the softening point after aging; however, other behaviors are also possible. The softening point of asphalt can decrease after aging due to the loss of volatile components and changes in its chemical structure [46,47]. These changes lead to a decrease in the viscosity of the asphalt and a lowering of the softening temperature [48]. Taking into consideration the prepared mixture, the most probable reason for this behavior in the analyzed material is that changes in chemical structure connected with the aging of asphalt lead to oxidation and polymerization. These processes can result in the formation of molecules with lower molar masses and lower softening points than the original asphalt components. In this case, some solutions to improve the aging behavior are hybrid modifiers or surface treatment that will prevent oxidation processes [49].

4. Discussion

The conducted research examined the properties of PBB mixtures using different concentrations of the FPMB modifier and their resistance to aging processes. The main objective was to evaluate the effect of FPMB on the heat resistance and elasticity of bitumen mixtures before and after aging in order to determine the most effective compositions for use in road surfaces.
Mixtures with BND 60/90 (Caspi Bitum LLP) + 7% FPMB:
  • The softening temperature before aging was 70.6 °C, but after aging, it decreased to 59 °C, indicating a decrease in the heat resistance of the material.
  • The depth of needle penetration decreased from 81 mm to 69 mm, indicating an increase in the hardness of the bitumen after aging. This suggests that the structure of the mixture becomes denser, but the heat resistance worsens.
Mixtures with BND 60/90 (Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP) + 6% FPMB:
  • The softening temperature before aging was 58.9 °C, and after aging, it increased to 61.4 °C. This indicates an improvement in the heat resistance of the material and an increase in its resistance to high temperatures.
  • The depth of needle penetration significantly decreased from 73.6 mm to 49.3 mm, indicating a significant increase in the stiffness of the mixture. This may be due to the strengthening of the bitumen structure after aging.
Mixtures with a higher concentration of FPMB (7%) demonstrated a significant change in the softening temperature, indicating the possibility of losing heat resistance. At the same time, their stiffness increased, which may be useful in conditions requiring increased coating strength.
The mixture with BND 60/90 (Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP) + 6% FPMB showed the best results in terms of heat resistance and rigidity after aging, which makes it more preferable for use in road surfaces with high performance requirements.
The test results demonstrate the importance of correctly selecting the concentration of the FPMB modifier. A mixture with an optimal concentration can ensure a balance between heat resistance and elasticity, which is critical for the durability of the road surface. Moreover, this kind of additive allows for the effective management of waste by processing it into a useful product for the economy, including coherence with proper standards—Table 8.
The other research confirms the obtained results, including the usage of rubber crumb waste for bitumen modification [27,30,32]. Although the provided tests give very good results, they also require further research, including confirmation of long-term properties for designed mixtures and resistance to changing climatic conditions. The best work for the continuation of this study will be a semi-industrial installation on a small section of the road. This type of installation would enable observation of the material in real conditions. Parallel to field tests, it is also possible to conduct laboratory work on further possibilities of optimizing the material as well as for improving the process parameters [50,51]. This kind of research can be focused on increasing the amount of waste materials in the final composition, also through the usage of waste aggregates from used roads and the implementation of new admixtures for the reinforcement of selective properties [6,14,52]. The development of sustainable pavement design seems to be one of the most important paradigms in the current road industry. Sustainable pavement design is an important element for environmental protection, efficient resource utilization, and improvement in infrastructure quality and user safety, as well as ensuring the durability and economic efficiency of road systems both now and in the future. A sustainable approach allows for the optimization of road solutions in terms of their overall impact on the environment and economic aspects, which is an important element for the future scalability of applying FPMB in an industrial setting.

5. Conclusions

The conducted studies confirmed the efficiency of using recycled materials, such as polymer waste and rubber crumbs, for the modification of bitumen binders. It was found that the inclusion of secondary materials in the bitumen composition improves its performance characteristics, including heat resistance, resistance to aging, and reduction in brittleness temperature. These properties make modified bitumen promising for use in extreme climatic conditions, such as Kazakhstan, Poland, and many other countries.
During this work, optimal concentrations of polymer additives were determined, allowing us to achieve a balance between the rigidity and elasticity of bitumen. The best results were achieved for 6 and 7% additions of FPMB. Particular attention was paid to the influence of softening temperature and depth of needle penetration on durability indicators. For the best mixture the softening point increased by about 5%, and penetration decreased by almost 35%.
The obtained data emphasizes the need for further research to clarify the standards and methods for testing recycled materials. However, this study shows the possibility and determines the possible amount of waste rubber additives; it also has limitations, including a small number of investigated samples and a lack of mechanical durability testing. It is also important to continue studying the influence of various types of waste on compatibility with bitumen and their stability in real operating conditions. Also, additional tests should be provided, including rheological behavior, rutting resistance, test resistance for different weather conditions, and additional microstructural evaluation. These studies open up prospects for the mass introduction of environmentally sustainable technologies in road construction, including field tests.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.Z.S. and L.A.; methodology, R.M.D. and A.Y.J.; validation, R.M.D. and D.A.A.; formal analysis, D.A.A. and K.K.; investigation, G.Z.S., A.Y.J. and D.K.S.; resources, L.A.; data curation, D.K.S.; writing—original draft preparation, G.Z.S. and K.K.; writing—review and editing, A.Y.J. and L.A.; visualization, K.K.; supervision, L.A.; funding acquisition, D.K.S. and A.Y.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research has been funded by the Committee of Science of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Grant No. BR21882278 “Establishment of a construction and technical engineering centre to provide a full cycle of accredited services to the construction, road-building sector of the Republic of Kazakhstan”).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Daulet Abaykhanovich Aspanbetov was employed by the company Innovation Consulting Group LLP. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
EVAethylene-vinyl acetate
LCALife Cycle Analysis
PBBpolymer–bitumen binder
PEpolyethylene
PPpolypropylene
RAPrecycled asphalt pavement
SBSstyrene–butadiene–styrene

Appendix A. Used Laboratory Device

Buildings 15 02608 g0a1
Figure A1. The used device: (a) automatic digital penetrometer model 20-20670; (b) Infratest automated device.
Figure A1. The used device: (a) automatic digital penetrometer model 20-20670; (b) Infratest automated device.
Buildings 15 02608 g0a1

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Buildings 15 02608 g001
Figure 1. FTIR results.
Figure 1. FTIR results.
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Figure 2. Diagram for sample preparation.
Figure 2. Diagram for sample preparation.
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Figure 3. Effect of FPMB concentration on PBB properties during stirring for 60 min.
Figure 3. Effect of FPMB concentration on PBB properties during stirring for 60 min.
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Figure 4. Effect of mixing time (90 and 60 min) on the penetration depth and softening temperature of the PBB-6% mixture.
Figure 4. Effect of mixing time (90 and 60 min) on the penetration depth and softening temperature of the PBB-6% mixture.
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Table 1. Characteristics of road bitumen 60/90 (Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP).
Table 1. Characteristics of road bitumen 60/90 (Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP).
NoProperties of BitumenResults
1Penetration (25 °C, 100 g, 5 s, 0.1 mm) [mm]117.6
2Ring and ball softening temperature [°C]46.4
Table 2. Characteristics of road bitumen 60/90 (Caspi Bitum LLP).
Table 2. Characteristics of road bitumen 60/90 (Caspi Bitum LLP).
NoProperties of Bitumen Results
1Penetration (25 °C, 100 g, 5 s, 0.1 mm) [mm]110.2
2Ring and ball softening temperature [°C]46.6
Table 3. Oxide composition without carbon and nitrogen (results of XRF analysis).
Table 3. Oxide composition without carbon and nitrogen (results of XRF analysis).
NoOxideAmount [%]Standard Deviation [%]
1SO376.340.00407
2P2O511.850.00247
3CaO5.490.00137
4SiO24.230.00182
5Na2O0.720.00514
6MgO0.460.00232
7Al2O30.330.00154
8HfO20.150.000740
9Fe2O30.100.000296
Table 4. Composition of PBB mixture samples.
Table 4. Composition of PBB mixture samples.
Sample
Designation		PBB-4%PBB-5%PBB-6% (A)PBB-6% (B)PBB-6.5%PBB-7%PBB-8%PBB-9%
Bitumen [%]9695949493.5939291
FPMB [%]45666.5789
Table 5. RTFOT aging results at 163 °C.
Table 5. RTFOT aging results at 163 °C.
NoBND 60/90 (Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP) + 6% FPMBBND 60/90 (Caspi Bitum LLP) + 7% FPMB
Mass Before RTFOT [g]Mass After
RTFOT [g]		Change in Mass [%]Mass Before RTFOT [g]Mass After
RTFOT [g]		Change in Mass [%]
1194194M1-0.00192191.9M1-0.05
2201.6201.5M2-0.05195.1195M2-0.05
3202.5202.2M3-0.15190190M3-0.00
4195.1195M4-0.05192.3192.3M4-0.00
5191.2191.2M5-0.00194.6194.5M5-0.05
6201.5201.4M6-0.05191.8191.7M6-0.05
Table 6. BND 60/90 (Caspi Bitum LLP) + 7% FPMB.
Table 6. BND 60/90 (Caspi Bitum LLP) + 7% FPMB.
Ring and Ball Softening Temperature [°C]
beforeafter
70.659
Needle penetration depth at 25 °C (not less than 0.1 mm) [mm]
8169
Table 7. BND 60/90 (Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP) + 6% FPMB.
Table 7. BND 60/90 (Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP) + 6% FPMB.
Ring and Ball Softening Temperature [°C]
beforeafter
58.961.4
Needle penetration depth at 25 °C (not less than 0.1 mm) [mm]
73.649.3
Table 8. Comparison of obtained results with different standards.
Table 8. Comparison of obtained results with different standards.
NoProperties of BitumenPN-EN 12591: 2010 50/70 [45]PN-EN 12591: 2010 70/100 [45]GOST 22245-90 BND 60/90 [44]BND 60/90 (Caspi Bitum LLP) + 7% FPMBBND 60/90 (Pavlodar Petrochemical Plant LLP) + 6% FPMB
1Penetration (25 °C, 100 g, 5 s, 0.1 mm) [mm]50–70 70–10061–908173.6
2Ring and ball softening temperature [°C]46 ÷ 54 43 ÷ 51 4770.658.9
3Remaining penetration after aging [%]≥50≥4620 (drop of penetration)6949.3
4Increase in softening point after aging [°C]≤9 or ≤11 ≤9 or ≤11 5 (defined as change)5961.4
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Seitenova, G.Z.; Dyussova, R.M.; Aspanbetov, D.A.; Jexembayeva, A.Y.; Korniejenko, K.; Aruova, L.; Sakanov, D.K. Eco-Friendly Bitumen Composites with Polymer and Rubber Waste for Sustainable Construction. Buildings 2025, 15, 2608. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152608

AMA Style

Seitenova GZ, Dyussova RM, Aspanbetov DA, Jexembayeva AY, Korniejenko K, Aruova L, Sakanov DK. Eco-Friendly Bitumen Composites with Polymer and Rubber Waste for Sustainable Construction. Buildings. 2025; 15(15):2608. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152608

Chicago/Turabian Style

Seitenova, Gaini Zhumagalievna, Rizagul Muslimovna Dyussova, Daulet Abaykhanovich Aspanbetov, Assel Yermekovna Jexembayeva, Kinga Korniejenko, Lyazat Aruova, and Darkhan Kuandykovich Sakanov. 2025. "Eco-Friendly Bitumen Composites with Polymer and Rubber Waste for Sustainable Construction" Buildings 15, no. 15: 2608. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152608

APA Style

Seitenova, G. Z., Dyussova, R. M., Aspanbetov, D. A., Jexembayeva, A. Y., Korniejenko, K., Aruova, L., & Sakanov, D. K. (2025). Eco-Friendly Bitumen Composites with Polymer and Rubber Waste for Sustainable Construction. Buildings, 15(15), 2608. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152608

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