A Whole-Life Carbon Assessment of a Single-Family House in North India Using BIM-LCA Integration
Abstract
1. Introduction and Background
- What is the whole-life carbon emission of a typical single-family residential dwelling unit of Northern India?
- How significant is the contribution of embodied carbon compared to operational carbon over the complete lifecycle of a typical single-family residential dwelling unit in northern India?
- Which specific building materials contribute most significantly to the embodied CO2e emissions of single-family residential construction based on their mass and resource type?
- How can BIM-LCA integrated methodology contribute to more effective decision-making in the design and policy-making process towards sustainable residential construction practices?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Case Study Building Description
2.2. Lifecycle Assessment of Residential House in Northern India
2.2.1. Goal and Scope Definition
2.2.2. Lifecycle Inventory (LCI) and Assumptions
2.2.3. Lifecycle Impact Assessment
2.2.4. Interpretation
2.3. Model Validation and Quality Assurance
- Solid brick masonry walls that are 230 mm thick with a U-value of approximately 1.8 W/m2K, [115];
- A reinforced concrete roof slab (U-value ≈ 1.5 W/m2K), [116];
- Single-glazed windows with a U-value of approximately 5.3 W/m2K [117].
- A cooling setpoint of 27 °C, with activation when indoor temperatures exceeded 30 °C;
- An average COP (Coefficient of Performance) of 3.2–3.5, representing 3- to 5-star BEE-rated systems available on the Indian market [117].
3. Results
3.1. Energy, Water and Climate Analysis
3.1.1. Energy Use Intensity (EUI)
3.1.2. Water Consumption
3.2. Lifecycle Impact Breakdown by Stage
3.2.1. Global Warming Potential (kg CO2e) Across Lifecycle Stages
3.2.2. Global Warming Potential (kg CO2e) by Classifications
3.2.3. Global Warming Potential (kg CO2e) by Resource Types and Mass Classification (kg)
3.3. Integration of BIM-Based Workflows with LCA
- We ensured data consistency (the same building geometry and specs used for both energy and LCA, avoiding double modeling errors).
- We could visualize impacts via BIM (for example, producing color-coded models showing the carbon intensity of each building element to communicate hotspots to the design team).
- We improved collaboration: multiple stakeholders (architects and sustainability consultants) could use the same BIM model to derive the info they need, which aligns with the benefits of BIM noted in the literature (improved information exchange and decision-making).
3.4. Sensitivity Analysis of Grid Emission Scenarios
- APS (Announced Pledges Scenario).
- STEPS (Stated Policies Scenario).
- SDS (Sustainable Development Scenario).
4. Discussion
4.1. Embodied vs. Operational Carbon Significance
4.2. Major Building Materials Driving Embodied CO2
4.3. BIM–LCA Integration for Sustainable Design Decisions
4.4. Policy and Regulatory Implications for Low-Carbon Housing in India
- Use low-carbon bricks for masonry: Replacing conventional clay bricks with fly ash bricks—as tested in this study—can reduce wall-related CO2e emissions from 6.7% to 2.3%. The trial mix used bricks with ~37% fly ash content, demonstrating the effectiveness of such substitutions [152].
- Adopt green concrete mixes: Substituting a portion of Portland cement with supplementary cementitious materials (e.g., fly ash, slag) can cut concrete-related emissions by up to 50%, significantly reducing the embodied carbon of structural elements [153].
- Leverage BIM-LCA tools in design decisions: Integrate LCA analysis with BIM during the early-design stage to evaluate the impact of different material and design options on the building’s carbon footprint. Also, integrating LCA within the BIM workflow allows the real-time assessment of design choices on lifecycle emissions, enabling the identification of material and energy hotspots prior to construction [154].
- Support India’s Net Zero by 2070 Target: The findings from this study highlight actionable pathways to reduce carbon intensity in residential buildings. Embedding lifecycle carbon assessments into building codes (e.g., NBC) and mandating low-carbon materials and BIM-LCA integration can significantly reduce emissions in India’s rapidly urbanizing sector. These measures align with international climate commitments, including India’s pledge at COP26 to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 [138].
4.5. Limitations and Assumptions
5. Conclusions and Outlook
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Parameter | Description |
---|---|
Location | New Delhi, India (urban context, composite climate zone) |
House type | Single-family residential dwelling unit (stand-alone, ground-floor construction) |
Floors/stories | Ground floor |
Total floor area | 110 m2 (approx. 1184 ft2) |
Gross floor internal area | 99 m2 |
Bedrooms/bathrooms | 2 bedrooms, 2 bathrooms, 1 living room, 1 kitchen and 1 dining area |
Occupancy | 5 persons (normal households’ size by population census 2011) [96] |
Structural system | Reinforced concrete frame {columns, beams, RCC (reinforced cement concrete), slabs} |
Wall construction | Brick masonry (burnt clay bricks) with cement plaster |
Roof construction | Flat RCC slab roof with waterproofing |
Floor finishes | Ceramic tile with cement screed subfloor |
Windows/doors | Single-glazed aluminum windows; wood/metal doors |
HVAC and comfort systems | Natural ventilation, ceiling fans, 1 split AC unit (master bedroom), portable room heater |
Design lifespan | 60 years (service life considered for LCA) |
Design standards | Aligned with National Building Code (NBC 2016) standards for mid-income housing; moderate energy efficiency (basic insulation, natural ventilation features) |
Class | Material | Quantity | Qty_Type |
---|---|---|---|
Foundation | Concrete—Cast-in-Place Concrete | 9.84 | M3 |
Foundation | Reinforcement Steel | 890 | KG |
Wall | Brick Common | 76.18 | TON |
Wall | Mortar | 13944 | KG |
Wall | Acrylic Topcoat Paint for Exterior | 0.02514 | M3 |
Wall | Emulsion Paint for Interior | 0.05686 | M3 |
Slab | Concrete—Cast-in-Place Concrete | 14.93 | M3 |
Slab | Reinforcement Steel | 1350 | KG |
Slab | Concrete—Screed | 7.08 | M3 |
Column | Concrete—Cast-in-Place Concrete | 1.08 | M3 |
Column | Reinforcement steel | 155 | KG |
Beam | Concrete—Cast-in-Place Concrete | 1.05 | M3 |
Beam | Reinforcement steel | 180 | KG |
Roof | Roof_Generic—150 mm | 14.52 | M3 |
Roof | Reinforcement Steel | 1450 | KG |
Roof | Plaster | 2420 | KG |
Stairs | Ready-Mix Concrete C25/30 | 1.62 | M3 |
Stairs | Reinforcement Steel | 180 | KG |
Door | Wood | 43 | M2 |
Door | Metal Door with Steel Core | 250 | KG |
Window | Window | 33 | M2 |
Horizontal finish | Stone and Ceramic mix | 1930 | KG |
Other | Damp-proofing | 0.37 | M3 |
Result Category | Global Warming Potential (kg CO2e) |
---|---|
A1–A3 Materials | 41,947.7 |
A4 Transport | 3875.8 |
A5 Construction | 3924.8 |
B1 Use phase | 0.272 |
B2 Maintenance | 151.5 |
B3 Repair | 10,328.4 |
B4–B5 Replacement | 4261.7 |
B6 Energy | 508,314.6 |
B7 Water | 3774.9 |
C1 Deconstruction/demolition | 601.8 |
C2 Waste transport | 805.3 |
C3 Waste processing | 15.9 |
C4 Waste disposal | 519.2 |
Total | 578,522 |
Results per denominator: Gross internal floor area (IPMS/RICS): 99.0 m2 Global warming potential per m2: 5844 kg CO2e/m2 |
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Kumar, D.; Maurya, K.K.; Mandal, S.K.; Halder, N.; Mir, B.A.; Nurdiawati, A.; Al-Ghamdi, S.G. A Whole-Life Carbon Assessment of a Single-Family House in North India Using BIM-LCA Integration. Buildings 2025, 15, 2195. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132195
Kumar D, Maurya KK, Mandal SK, Halder N, Mir BA, Nurdiawati A, Al-Ghamdi SG. A Whole-Life Carbon Assessment of a Single-Family House in North India Using BIM-LCA Integration. Buildings. 2025; 15(13):2195. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132195
Chicago/Turabian StyleKumar, Deepak, Kranti Kumar Maurya, Shailendra K. Mandal, Nandini Halder, Basit Afaq Mir, Anissa Nurdiawati, and Sami G. Al-Ghamdi. 2025. "A Whole-Life Carbon Assessment of a Single-Family House in North India Using BIM-LCA Integration" Buildings 15, no. 13: 2195. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132195
APA StyleKumar, D., Maurya, K. K., Mandal, S. K., Halder, N., Mir, B. A., Nurdiawati, A., & Al-Ghamdi, S. G. (2025). A Whole-Life Carbon Assessment of a Single-Family House in North India Using BIM-LCA Integration. Buildings, 15(13), 2195. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132195