Integrating Extended Reality (XR) in Architectural Design Education: A Systematic Review and Case Study at Southeast University (China)

Abstract

In recent years, extended reality (XR) technologies have emerged as transformative tools within the architectural design industry, offering immersive and interactive environments that enhance visualisation and collaboration. However, a significant gap remains between adopting these technologies in professional practises and integrating them into architectural design education. This study aims to bridge this gap by systematically reviewing XR applications in architectural design practises and exploring their potential integration into design studios. It specifically focuses on undergraduate graduation projects from the School of Architecture at Southeast University in China. Findings indicate that XR can transform traditional design approaches by refining design methods, extending design scopes, and encouraging the inclusion of diverse stakeholders. The paper also offers insights into optimising XR applications in architectural design education, providing strategic recommendations for technical advancements and academic curricula innovation, ultimately preparing students for technology-driven changes in professional practises.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

Virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR) technologies have revolutionised various fields in recent years, ranging from healthcare and education to architecture and engineering [1]. This paper uses extended reality (XR) to broadly categorise these real and virtual environments generated by digital technologies [2,3,4], following the reality–virtuality continuum spectrum (Figure 1). Due to XR’s ability to provide an immersive and interactive 3D environment, corresponding to the architecture design’s reliance on visualising and manipulating spatial entities, the architectural industry stands at the forefront of XR applications [5].

In addition, XR can reduce costs by minimising the use of physical materials for illustrations and models in the architectural design process and offering potential integration with other digital technologies like Building Information Modelling (BIM) in the broader construction and engineering industry [6]. They can also improve engagement in projects that require balancing various requirements from diverse stakeholders, addressing a common challenge professional architects face [7]. In this context, architectural design firms have increasingly adopted XR and have fundamentally innovated the approaches to producing architectural works [8].

In architectural education, digital technologies, particularly modelling or drawing software, have significantly transformed traditional teaching and learning methodologies [9]. XR have similar potential because they enable students to explore and evaluate their designs in immersive environments that closely mimic real-world settings. This approach can help improve junior architectural students’ spatial understanding, allowing interactions with architectural components, which have been the focus of several experimental applications in architectural design education [5,10,11]. Ghanem [12] noted that integrating XR into architectural design studios can prepare students for technology-driven changes in the industry. However, despite their potential, the adoption of XR in architectural design pedagogy remains uneven. Since early 2020, the pandemic has caused a shift in daily life from the physical world to online virtual spaces, which has resulted in a resurgence of XR concepts. Nevertheless, during the pandemic, most architectural studios relied on traditional methods like drafts, sketch models, and other conventional design, communication, and presentation techniques, causing project misunderstandings and delays.

As illustrated in Figure 2, a parallel exists between the practice and education process for architectural design. Bademosi et al. [13] observed that XR can be applied at various stages of construction projects, including conceptual planning, pre-design and pre-construction, construction, operation and maintenance, and demolition. In architectural studios, students follow a similar design process that mirrors professional practice, starting with research and planning, moving on to detailed design tasks, such as layout and spatial planning, and then progressing to project presentations. Some students may then simulate construction activities, translating designs into structures. Therefore, reviewing current practises of XR within the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) sector can reveal their potential applications in architectural design education and can help to propose modern studio pedagogy for the digital era through analysing effective strategies and possible pitfalls.

1.2. Research Gap

The XR applications in the AEC industry and architectural design education have been widely examined. For example, Zhang et al. [14] identified five applications of VR in the AEC sector, including user-centred adaptive design and attention-driven VR information systems. Prabhakaran et al. [15] conducted an in-depth review of the challenges faced by immersive technologies in construction, including issues related to infrastructure, interoperability, and ethical issues. Regarding specific applications, Xu and Moreu [16] investigated the use of AR in civil infrastructure, while Chen and Xue [17] evaluated its application across the design, construction, and operation phases. Furthermore, Wen and Gheisari [7] examined VR’s potential to improve communication and collaboration. Shifting the focus to educational applications, Wang et al. [18] classified VR and AR’s effects on design visualisation, safety training, and structural analysis. However, Diao and Shih [8] emphasised the critical need for integrating these technologies into pedagogical frameworks. Wang et al. [3] noted that research frequently falls short of practical validation within architectural design curricula. Though there have been efforts made by institutions, such as the experimentation with AR in landscape architecture courses conducted by Port Said University, a gap in the comprehensive exploration across diverse architectural topics still exists [19].

Despite this growing body of work, existing frameworks for XR integration in architectural education have not effectively addressed the practical challenges educators and students face. First, many frameworks focus too much on the technological aspects of XR while neglecting the pedagogical strategies needed to integrate these tools seamlessly into design curricula. Second, the high cost and technical complexity of XR equipment and software limit accessibility for many educational institutions, particularly those with constrained budgets or technical expertise, hindering widespread adoption. Furthermore, there is often a lack of clear guidelines on effectively integrating XR tools into the learning process, limiting their impact on the educational experience.

Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap by aligning characteristics of XR technologies and current applications in the AEC industry with studio demands, providing feasible insights for incorporating XR into architectural design education. This study addresses the following questions:

• What cutting-edge XR applications in the AEC sector can be integrated into teaching and learning within architectural design studios?
• Which aspects of architectural design studios can XR technologies enhance, and what potential applications and technologies remain unimplemented in educational settings to optimise the studio experience?
• How might these innovative applications impact the advancement of technologies and transform the framework of architectural design studios?

2. Research Methodology

This study employs a structured methodological approach to exploring XR applications in architectural design pedagogy, comprising three main stages. First, a systematic review is conducted to extract information regarding application types, target users, and stages of XR deployment in architectural design. The second stage involves analysing undergraduate graduation projects for architectural design from the School of Architecture, Southeast University, as case studies to identify the alignment between educational demands and the benefits offered by XR applications. Finally, the third stage focuses on assessing the compatibility of potential XR application methods and identifying gaps for future development.

2.1. Systematic Literature Review

In the first phase of this study, a systematic literature review was conducted to explore XR applications in architectural design, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Figure 3). The PRISMA flow diagram is designed to improve the transparency and reliability of systematic reviews and meta-analyses, offering a clear and structured framework to document each step of the literature screening process [20].

The literature search for this scoping review was conducted on 5 August 2024, using Web of Science’s advanced search interface within the Web of Science Core Collection, chosen for its extensive repository of peer-reviewed literature across various XR-related disciplines. The specifically crafted search string was input into the Query Preview feature, as follows: (((((TS = (AR application in architecture* design)) OR TS = (augmented reality application in architecture* design)) OR TS = (VR application in architecture* design)) OR TS = (virtual reality application in architecture* design)) OR TS = (MR application in architecture* design)) OR TS = (Mixed Reality application in architecture* design). This search was conducted in the “Topic” field (TS), which includes titles, abstracts, and keywords. Using the “AND” operator ensures that all retrieved articles focus on immersive technology (AR, VR, MR) and architectural design. The “OR” operator captured studies discussing the three technologies. Additionally, the search string used the asterisk (*) as a wildcard to account for variations in the term “architecture” (e.g., “architectural” and “architecture design”).

Initially, the search returned 1509 records. The inclusion criteria focused on recent advancements in XR technologies, ensuring a comprehensive coverage of the most relevant and up-to-date literature. The time frame of 2015 to 2024 was chosen to capture the latest developments, while the English-language criterion was applied for consistency. However, this may have excluded valuable perspectives from non-English research, and including articles and conference papers ensured a balance between established research and emerging ideas.

During the screening phase, 964 records were reviewed based on their titles and abstracts to assess their relevance to the research objectives. Records were excluded if they focused on the technical development or optimisation of XR technologies and unrelated subject areas. Then, 105 studies were involved in retrieving full texts, with 99 assessed for eligibility. Reasons for exclusion at this stage included review articles and those focused on XR applications in architectural design education, with 43 studies included ultimately for detailed analysis.

2.2. Case Study

Architectural graduation projects serve as a comprehensive demonstration of the knowledge acquired by students, acting as a critical bridge between academic learning and professional practice [21]. The complexity of these projects, which mirror real-world architectural design, is evident in the diversity of design objects and the intricate collaboration and presentation processes involved. They not only showcase students’ acquisition of disciplinary knowledge and their capacity for critical thinking but also prepare them for future roles in architectural design practises [22].

This research further refines the requirements, obstacles, and features of diverse architectural graduation projects based on case studies of studio experiences at the School of Architecture at Southeast University from 2022 to 2024. As a leader in architectural education in China, Southeast University adopts an internationalised teaching model, engaging in dynamic interactions with global architectural schools. This international orientation provides appropriate cases for the corresponding analysis, ensuring the findings are relevant to local and global educational contexts. The study is limited to the field of architecture and does not yet include landscape or urban design. Initially, 47 undergraduate graduation projects were reviewed, with a final selection of 45 projects made for in-depth analysis after removing duplicates.

As shown in

Table 1. Undergraduate graduation projects’ topics from the School of Architecture, Southeast University, from 2022 to 2024.

No.	Studio Topic	Year	Urban Design	Architecture Design	Technology	History
P01	Collaborative Graduation Design for 8 Schools of Architecture *	2022	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P02	Urban Design and Renovation of Industrial Heritage Area Surrounding Jinling Shipyard	2022	⚪	--	--	⚪
P03	Urban Micro-Update: Urban Renewal of Jinling East Road in Huangpu District, Shanghai	2022	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P04	Urban Design and Renewal of the Industrial Heritage Zone in Shanghai’s Pudong District	2022	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P05	Protection and Development Planning of Historical Blocks under Hakka Culture	2022	--	⚪	--	⚪
P06	Sustainable Revitalization of Old Streets for the Pingjiang Road Block, Suzhou	2022	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P07	Construction in the Jiangnan Area	2022	--	⚪	--	--
P08	Urban Renewal of the Unique Scenic District in Jinglin Town	2022	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P09	Office Building Design in Hot Summer and Cold Winter Climates	2022	--	⚪	⚪	--
P10	Multi-functional Digital Construction—Adaptive Reuse of Wuxi Gedai Granary	2022	--	⚪	⚪	⚪
P11	Urban Renewal and Elderly Care Service Centre Design in the Context of Aging Population	2022	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P12	Renovation Design of the Abandoned Power Plant in Oysters Lake, Shenzhen	2022	--	⚪	--	⚪
P13	Interior Design with Lightweight and High-Sound Insulation Partitions for Hotel Rooms	2022	--	⚪	⚪	--
P14	Conceptual Design for Urbanisation of the Public Transport Corridor in Nanjing	2022	⚪	--	--	--
P15	Design and Construction of Energy-efficient Building Skins Using Interactive Technology	2022	--	⚪	⚪	--
P16	Integrated Design of Urban Rail Transit Transfer Station Area and Urban Building Complex (TOD) *	2022	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P17	Protection and Revitalization Design of the “Third Line Construction” Heritage in Puqi, Hubei	2022	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P18	Study on Modern Wooden Educational Buildings-Case Study of Lotus Pond Kindergarten	2022	--	⚪	--	--
P19	Design of Daning International E-sports Culture Centre, Shanghai	2022	--	⚪	--	--
P20	Urban Renewal and Architectural Design of Changsha Wenmiaoping District	2023	⚪	⚪	--	--
P21	Urban Renewal and Activation Design of Xin’an Street, Jiangshan City	2023	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P22	Urban Renewal Design for Guangling Road and Surrounding Areas in Historic City Yangzhou	2023	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P23	Optimisation Design of the Built Environment Using Interactive Technology *	2023	--	⚪	⚪	--
P24	Design and Construction of a New Type of Yurt Using Ultra-high Performance Concrete (UHPC)	2023	--	⚪	⚪	--
P25	Protection Design of the Yang Family Mansion and Surrounding Historic Environment	2023	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P26	Reuse and Development of Nanjing 1865 Creative Industry Park	2023	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P27	Typical Community Aging-friendly Design Based on Community Service Resource Allocation	2023	⚪	--	⚪	--
P28	Urban Renewal of Dingshu Town Painting Creek River Based on Historical and Cultural Heritage	2023	--	⚪	--	⚪
P29	Mapping Survey and Cross-scale Design of Public Spaces in Quanzhou Ancient City	2023	--	⚪	--	⚪
P30	Design of the Immersive Theatre Cultural and Commercial Centre in the Old Town of Wuyou	2023	--	⚪	⚪	⚪
P31	Campus Design in Historic Districts	2023	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P32	Urban Renewal of the Gap Market and Adjacent Plots in Zhangmiao Street, Shanghai	2023	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P33	Research and Restoration Display Design of Ancient Architecture Models at Southeast University	2024	--	--	--	⚪
P34	Urban Renewal of Cultural Heritage like the Tao Bi Wharf Area in Dingshu Town	2024	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P35	Research on Low-carbon Strategies in the Renovation of Historical Buildings-Design of the Antique Trade Centre in Barkhor Historic Cultural District, Lhasa	2024	--	⚪	⚪	⚪
P36	Digital Design and Smart Construction of UHPC Curved Buildings for a Sustainable Future	2024	--	⚪	⚪	--
P37	High-end Business Hotel and Rental Apartment Design for the Renewal of Jinling Shipyard	2024	--	⚪	--	⚪
P38	Urban Renewal and Architectural Design of the West Segment of the Inner Qinhuai River, Nanjing	2024	⚪	⚪	--	⚪
P39	Urban Renewal and Architectural Complex Design of the Zhonghua Gate Metro Station, Nanjing	2024	⚪	⚪	--	--
P40	Architectural Design for Shanghai Industrial Museum	2024	--	⚪	--	--
P41	Design of the Community Centre in the Wildflower Neighbourhood of Hengfu Old Alley, Shanghai	2024	--	⚪	--	⚪
P42	Design for Suzhou Cultural Heritage Exchange Centre	2024	--	⚪	--	⚪
P43	Protection and Regeneration Design of Block 32 in the Old City of Suzhou	2024	⚪	⚪	--	--
P44	Design of the Docks Market in Dihuang, Xihu Township, Jingdezhen, Jiangxi	2024	⚪	⚪	--	--
P45	Urban Renewal and Zero-energy Building Renovation Project of Qingsong New Village, No. 50	2024	⚪	⚪	⚪	--

* “*” indicates a project topic repeated multiple times over three years, “⚪ “indicates relevance to the specific topic, while “--” denotes irrelevance.

, these projects are categorised into four types, including architectural design, urban design, architectural history, and architectural technology, following the classification by the National Sub-Supervision Board of Architectural Education in China. Architectural design emphasises the creation and conceptualisation of buildings and structures. Urban design focuses on planning and developing urban environments, integrating architecture with public space. Architectural history involves the study of architectural evolution, examining historical contexts and their impact on modern architecture. Architectural technology explores construction’s practical and technical aspects, including building materials and structural systems.

2.3. Qualitative Analysis

In the end, by connecting the technical features of XR with the requirements observed in graduation projects, this research proposes an innovative pedagogy framework for architectural design studios. The study investigates potential strategies, tools, and methods for learning and teaching architectural design through XR. This involves categorising projects by design focus and examining the alignment of XR application methods with the demands of architectural design education. Through this analysis, the study identifies the potential benefits and limitations of integrating XR into architectural design studios, offering strategic recommendations to bridge the gap between industry advancements and academic curricula.

3. Review of XR Applications in Architectural Industry

As shown in Figure 4, Abdelhameed [23] categorises VR’s characteristics into immersion, interactivity, and multi-sensory feedback. For AR, Azuma [24] identifies three widely accepted characteristics: the integration of real and virtual, real-time interaction, and three-dimensional registration. While AR may offer less immersive experiences compared to VR, it facilitates simultaneous interactions between virtual objects and real-world environments. Moreover, MR expands on VR and AR principles by anchoring virtual objects in the real environment, reducing digital and physical interactions [25]. Due to their digital nature, all three technologies enable users to interact dynamically and collaboratively with architectural designs [26].

This section categorises XR integration in architectural design into simulation, interaction, and collaboration (Figure 5). The Visualisation section focuses on architectural topics and content (Table 2), while the Interaction and Collaboration sections are organised around the design process and teaching methodologies. Interaction explores how XR supports real-time feedback and engagement (Table 3), while Collaboration examines how XR fosters teamwork and client interaction in design (Table 4).

3.1. Visualisation

VR provides fully immersive, three-dimensional environments ideal for simulating specific scenes and spaces. The multi-sensory feedback inherent in VR enhances the realism of these simulations, allowing for a more accurate representation of spatial concepts. Similarly, AR and MR environments utilise three-dimensional registration to enhance the realistic and immersive presentation of architectural design outcomes and facilitate a more tangible interaction.

3.1.1. Environment

(1)

XR for Environmental Contexts Simulation

The site of an architectural design project significantly influences factors such as massing, performance design, and contextual integration. XR enables the simulation of site-related information, allowing designers to perceive the environment in a more immersive and interactive way. W. Wang et al. [27] developed the MR application Holo3DGIS to assist designers in understanding the spatial relationships between the geographical information of the site and architectural design decisions. In addition, Tomkins and Lange [28] highlighted the limitations of static images and physical models in conveying dynamic environmental conditions, and they applied Desktop-AR to visualise flood scenarios. Similarly, Han [29] utilised VR for virtual tours of rural settlements.

(2)

AR and MR for On-Site Visualisation Enhancement

The ability of AR and MR to seamlessly blend virtual and real elements significantly enhances on-site visualisation, allowing designers to overlay annotations or visualise invisible features. Ünal and Demir [30] identified various location-based information that can be displayed using AR, including site survey data, visual guides, in situ reconstructions, semantic information related to urban objects, points of public interest, and underground construction details. Ünal and Demir [31] explored AR’s potential for on-site architectural design presentations by visualising local environmental factors, cultural elements, and existing infrastructure. They suggested that AR aids students in understanding site contexts and their impact on design decisions.

(3)

VR for Site Accessibility Improvement

Integrated with three-dimensional scanning or panoramic cameras, VR can replicate real-world environments virtually, offering an alternative to site visits, which are essential yet are often limited by time and geographical constraints. Dinis et al. [32] demonstrated that combining laser scanning with VR generates realistic site visit simulations to enhance spatial comprehension. Onecha et al. [33] proposed utilising three-dimensional panoramic cameras to establish a metaverse learning environment, enabling students to explore construction sites when physical visits are impractical.

3.1.2. Performance

The three-dimensional models used in XR visualisations can be integrated into specialised analysis software for performance assessments, particularly when combined with BIM [34,35]. XR can enhance performance analysis by visually and dynamically presenting simulation outcomes. Additionally, it adapts participants’ movements, thereby improving the authenticity of user feedback.

Acoustic analysis is a primary application of XR in performance visualisation. De la Hoz-Torres et al. [36] integrated acoustic data within BIM models in VR environments to identify simulation results and understand how materials, structures, and other design elements influence acoustic environments [37]. Llorca-Bofí and Vorländer [38] identified the essential architectural properties for VR acoustic analysis, including geometries, materials, sources, and receivers.

Similarly, XR has proven valuable in other performance analyses. Gan et al. [39] demonstrated the real-time VR visualisation of wind directions and speeds between buildings during layout optimisation. Moreover, Sui et al. [40] applied VR to analyse the energy consumption of residences, providing a more intuitive assessment of energy-saving effects. Scorpio et al. [41] reviewed the existing applications to summarise the necessary parameters for lighting simulations. Zhao et al. [42] compared VR, AR, and MR in simulating facade window geometries’ effects on indoor lighting. They found that MR offers detailed design reviews, aiding students in understanding complex architectural features and their performance impacts.

3.1.3. User Behaviour and Experience

XR technologies, particularly VR, offer simulated environments that test user behaviour and spatial perception preferences, thus facilitating user-centred architectural design [43]. Bokharaei and Nasar [44] created different virtual walking routes with varied attributes, discovering how dynamic and continuous spatial experiences influence perception through user testing. Their study demonstrated how users’ spatial experience is affected by the design of routes, offering valuable insights into how VR can help test and refine the movement patterns and interactions within a space. This type of user testing is critical in designing environments that cater to specific user needs, as it allows for direct observation and data collection in a controlled yet immersive setting.

Similarly, Bedon and Mattei [45] simulated architectural environments with different glass materials, using facial expression monitoring and analysis to examine their effects on spatial experiences. Their research highlights the potential of XR in understanding how users emotionally and physiologically respond to architectural features, offering a more comprehensive analysis of design impacts. Using XR, designers can gather more detailed feedback on how the spatial atmosphere, materials, and environmental elements influence user behaviour, moving beyond visual aesthetics to include emotional and sensory responses.

Furthermore, XR can simulate scenarios that reflect the experiences of specific populations with unique visual effects, which used to be challenging for designers to engage directly with clients or target audiences with special needs. Zhang and Codinhoto [46] simulated the experience of elderly individuals with visual impairments within residential spaces to evaluate the design’s suitability for this demographic. This study underscores XR’s ability to provide immersive simulations for specific user groups, allowing designers to test how different populations might interact with space under varying conditions. Similarly, Pérez et al. [47] simulated the movement of wheelchair users to assess the accessibility of designs for people with disabilities. By replicating real-life mobility challenges, these simulations help architects create more inclusive environments, ensuring that designs are functional and comfortable for all users.

Table 2. Literature mapping for XR applications in visualisation.

Category	Architectural Topics and Content	Reference	Author(s)	Year	VR	AR	MR
Environment	Environmental Contexts Simulation	[27]	Wang et al.	2018	√
		[28]	Tomkins and Lange	2019		√
	On-Site Visualisation Enhancement	[29]	Han	2022	√
		[30]	Ünal and Demir	2018		√
		[31]	Ünal and Demir	2021		√
	Real Space Reconstruction	[32]	Dinis et al.	2020	√
		[33]	Onecha et al.	2023	√	√	√
Performance	Acoustic	[36]	De la Hoz-Torres et al.	2022	√
		[37]	Hong et al.	2018	√
		[38]	Llorca-Bofí and Vorländer	2021	√
	Wind Directions and Speeds	[39]	Gan et al.	2022	√
	Energy Consumption	[40]	Sui et al.	2022	√
	Lighting	[41]	Scorpio et al.	2020	√
		[42]	Zhao et al.	2023	√	√	√
User Behaviour and Experience Estimation	Pedestrian Flow	[43]	Chi et al.	2022	√	√	√
	User Behaviour	[44]	Bokharaei and Nasar	2016	√
		[45]	Bedon and Mattei	2021	√
		[46]	Zhang and Codinhoto	2020	√
	Special Population Experience	[47]	Pérez et al.	2022	√

Table 2. Literature mapping for XR applications in visualisation.

Category	Architectural Topics and Content	Reference	Author(s)	Year	VR	AR	MR
Environment	Environmental Contexts Simulation	[27]	Wang et al.	2018	√
		[28]	Tomkins and Lange	2019		√
	On-Site Visualisation Enhancement	[29]	Han	2022	√
		[30]	Ünal and Demir	2018		√
		[31]	Ünal and Demir	2021		√
	Real Space Reconstruction	[32]	Dinis et al.	2020	√
		[33]	Onecha et al.	2023	√	√	√
Performance	Acoustic	[36]	De la Hoz-Torres et al.	2022	√
		[37]	Hong et al.	2018	√
		[38]	Llorca-Bofí and Vorländer	2021	√
	Wind Directions and Speeds	[39]	Gan et al.	2022	√
	Energy Consumption	[40]	Sui et al.	2022	√
	Lighting	[41]	Scorpio et al.	2020	√
		[42]	Zhao et al.	2023	√	√	√
User Behaviour and Experience Estimation	Pedestrian Flow	[43]	Chi et al.	2022	√	√	√
	User Behaviour	[44]	Bokharaei and Nasar	2016	√
		[45]	Bedon and Mattei	2021	√
		[46]	Zhang and Codinhoto	2020	√
	Special Population Experience	[47]	Pérez et al.	2022	√

3.2. Interaction

The integrative nature of digital platforms, particularly as employed in BIM, facilitates consolidating multifaceted data into a cohesive digital model or virtual space to convey the complex and three-dimensional information that is integral to architectural works. Alizadehsalehi et al. [5] found that interactive learning methods significantly enhance the comprehension of architectural concepts among diverse audiences. Furthermore, AR and MR enable meaningful interaction between the real and virtual layers of space [48].

Table 3. Literature mapping for XR applications in interaction.

Category	Detailed Applications in Design Methods	Reference	Author(s)	Year	VR	AR	MR
Digital Architectural Modelling	Hands-on Virtual Model Manipulation	[49]	Lonsing	2019	√	√
		[50]	Gül	2018		√
		[51]	Tastan et al.	2022	√
	3D Models Generation from Hand-Drawn Sketches	[52]	Jackson and Keefe	2016	√
		[53]	Wali et al.	2023	√
	Massing Generation	[54]	Gül	2017	√	√	√
Optimisation	Decision Making	[55]	Dan et al.	2021			√
		[56]	Joy and Raja	2024	√
	Modification	[57]	Moloney et al.	2020	√	√	√

Table 3. Literature mapping for XR applications in interaction.

Category	Detailed Applications in Design Methods	Reference	Author(s)	Year	VR	AR	MR
Digital Architectural Modelling	Hands-on Virtual Model Manipulation	[49]	Lonsing	2019	√	√
		[50]	Gül	2018		√
		[51]	Tastan et al.	2022	√
	3D Models Generation from Hand-Drawn Sketches	[52]	Jackson and Keefe	2016	√
		[53]	Wali et al.	2023	√
	Massing Generation	[54]	Gül	2017	√	√	√
Optimisation	Decision Making	[55]	Dan et al.	2021			√
		[56]	Joy and Raja	2024	√
	Modification	[57]	Moloney et al.	2020	√	√	√

3.2.1. Digital Architectural Modelling

Traditional architectural design processes typically follow a linear progression from rough hand-drawn sketches to prototype concepts and finally to detailed computer-generated models. However, hand-drawn sketches require strong spatial thinking skills to translate between planar and three-dimensional concepts, which can be challenging for junior architecture students. Additionally, there is often a disconnect between flexible conceptualisation and precise computer modelling.

(1)

Hands-on Virtual Model Manipulation

Regarding the first issue, Lonsing [49] utilised a physical stylus to interact with virtual models generated through Marker-Based AR recognition. Gül [50] compared design gestures in Mobile-AR environments with traditional ones, where the digital screen acts as a barrier, separating the three-dimensional space from the physical design environment and causing a disconnect between design concepts and their presentation. Similarly, Tastan et al. [51] conducted experiments comparing mouse input with handheld controllers in virtual environments. They found that XR technologies bridge the gap between virtual and real spaces by offering more intuitive, convenient, and flexible modelling methods that enhance spatial understanding by directly manipulating visualised digital architectural elements via gestures.

(2)

3D Models from Hand-Drawn Sketches

Regarding the second issue, Jackson and Keefe [52] developed an AR spatial modelling application that converts curves from artists’ hand-drawn sketches into 3D models at a real-world scale. In addition, Wali et al. [53] created an application that converts sketches directly into VR three-dimensional models, enabling designers to receive real-time feedback and make modifications. These applications break the traditional linear workflow, making nonlinear design iteration and optimisation possible.

(3)

Massing Generation

Furthermore, the application of XR in modelling provides benefits for massing generation, which are often overlooked due to the prioritisation of functional layout. Gül [54] found that designers employ an additive approach in an AR environment by starting with small components and progressively constructing the overall design, allowing them to layer and adjust design elements incrementally.

3.2.2. Optimisation

(1)

Decision Making

Users can compare and receive real-time feedback on various design choices by decomposing architectural components into interactive objects in the database. Dan et al. [55] developed an MR application for designing community gardens, which allows designers to arrange pre-set spatial elements, such as plants and furniture, directly on-site to compare different layouts. Furthermore, Joy and Raja [56] expanded interior design options by enabling designers to explore various materials, colours, and spatial layouts in VR environments.

(2)

Modification

Integrating design adjustments with performance evaluations helps designers make real-time modifications based on simulation data. Moloney et al. [57] employed MR to conduct quantitative simulations and assessments of lighting and energy consumption for an office building during the early design stages. They also conducted qualitative assessments of spatial effects, proposing prototypes for interface designs and workflows for pre-use evaluations of XR applications.

3.3. Collaboration

Collaboration among diverse groups is crucial in the architectural design process. However, with the advancement of globalisation, cultural differences, communication barriers, and coordination difficulties across different time zones can pose challenges to international design collaboration [58]. Participants, including clients, construction teams, and government officials, often have difficulty understanding spatial concepts and collaborating efficiently within the architectural design process [59]. The accessibility of XR platforms, with their real-time interaction capabilities and multi-user integration features, significantly improves the collaborative opportunities within architectural design [60]. Rapid software and hardware development for cross-platform and cross-spatial collaboration has facilitated real-time communication in shared virtual spaces. The following applications are not mutually exclusive but are categorised based on their distinct characteristics.

Table 4. Literature mapping for XR applications in collaboration.

Category	Detailed Application in Teaching and Learning Modes	Reference	Author(s)	Year	VR	AR	MR
Participatory Collaboration	Community	[60]	Alsafouri and Ayer	2019		√
	Clients and End-Users	[61]	Khan et al.	2017		√
		[62]	Osorto Carrasco and Chen	2021			√
		[63]	Shouman et al.	2022		√
		[64]	Mastrolembo et al.	2020	√
		[65]	Potseluyko et al.	2022	√
Cross-Platform Collaboration	Synchronised Display Between VR and AR	[66]	Muñoz-Cristóbal et al.	2015	√	√
		[67]	Hobson et al.	2020		√
	BIM Models to AVR Environments	[68]	Kado and Hirasawa	2018	√
		[69]	Flotyński and Sobociński	2018	√
		[70]	Du et al.	2018	√
Cross-Space Collaboration	Co-Located Communication	[71]	Jin et al.	2020		√
		[72]	Wells and Houben	2020		√
	Remote Communication	[73]	Keung et al.	2021	√
		[74]	Tea et al.	2021	√

Table 4. Literature mapping for XR applications in collaboration.

Category	Detailed Application in Teaching and Learning Modes	Reference	Author(s)	Year	VR	AR	MR
Participatory Collaboration	Community	[60]	Alsafouri and Ayer	2019		√
	Clients and End-Users	[61]	Khan et al.	2017		√
		[62]	Osorto Carrasco and Chen	2021			√
		[63]	Shouman et al.	2022		√
		[64]	Mastrolembo et al.	2020	√
		[65]	Potseluyko et al.	2022	√
Cross-Platform Collaboration	Synchronised Display Between VR and AR	[66]	Muñoz-Cristóbal et al.	2015	√	√
		[67]	Hobson et al.	2020		√
	BIM Models to AVR Environments	[68]	Kado and Hirasawa	2018	√
		[69]	Flotyński and Sobociński	2018	√
		[70]	Du et al.	2018	√
Cross-Space Collaboration	Co-Located Communication	[71]	Jin et al.	2020		√
		[72]	Wells and Houben	2020		√
	Remote Communication	[73]	Keung et al.	2021	√
		[74]	Tea et al.	2021	√

3.3.1. Participatory Collaboration

Khan et al. [61] emphasised the potential of AR in fostering community involvement and democratic decision making in architectural design and spatial planning. Osorto Carrasco and Chen [62] highlighted that MR improves participants’ understanding of complex spatial relationships and design elements, such as intricate structures and details, particularly in the design review phase. Shouman et al. [63] found that Mobile-AR facilitates a more interactive and engaging user experience to overcome misinterpretations due to limited interaction with design presentations. Additionally, Alsafouri and Ayer [60] suggested that AR allows teams to foresee potential issues before construction begins by testing different design schemes and materials. For targeted user groups, Mastrolembo Ventura et al. [64] emphasised that XR technologies enhance end-user engagement. Potseluyko et al. [65] extended the target audience to include self-built home clients, employing VR games to convey building information succinctly and cost-effectively.

3.3.2. Cross-Platform Collaboration

VR can be categorised into immersive VR and desktop VR, which, respectively, rely on different hardware, such as head-mounted displays (HMDs) for full immersion or desktops for projected three-dimensional environments. Similarly, AR includes spatial augmented reality (SAR), Mobile-AR, and headset-based AR. In this context, Muñoz-Cristóbal et al. [66] explored the potential for a single digital design model to be used or switched between a three-dimensional virtual environment and AR street views. Hobson et al. [67] developed a web-based AR application to provide a lightweight AR experience with cross-platform interaction capabilities between desktop AR and AR devices. Kado and Hirasawa [68] explored using game engines to enable real-time dynamic updates in VR environments from three-dimensional modelling software, allowing edits to building components. Regarding technical optimisations, Flotyński and Sobociński [69] focused on latency issues in virtual environments when users manipulate 3D content. Du et al. [70] also worked on reducing latency when importing BIM models into VR environments.

3.3.3. Cross-Space Collaboration

Design teams can work together in two primary modes: co-located and remote collaboration. Co-located collaboration takes place in the real world, using tools like SAR proposed by Jin et al. [71], which allows designers to work around a physical model while synchronising modifications and annotations with its digital counterpart. Similarly, Wells and Houben [72] developed a Web-AR application to create a shared digital space based on real-world environments. Meanwhile, Keung et al. [73] addressed the limitations of physical space interactions and the risks of collisions in multi-user VR environments by developing an immersive collaboration prototype using an omnidirectional treadmill. Regarding remote collaboration, Tea et al. [74] developed a VR system for real-time, immersive and online design reviews to improve efficiency and spatial understanding to avoid project delays caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

4. Potential XR Applications in Architectural Design Studios

This section explores how specific attributes of architectural objects in studio design can be enhanced through XR at various stages of the design process. Given the interdisciplinary nature of architectural design projects, most focus on architectural design while intersecting with urban design, history, or technology (Figure 6). Therefore, this section is organised based on these intersections and analyses specific projects.

4.1. Urban Design

Due to urban design projects’ large scale and complexity, a unique educational and collaborative model in studios is employed. Two to three students initially work on a single urban-scale proposal before individually selecting specific sites for detailed architectural design. Digital site models or physical models with virtual overlays through SAR are easier to modify collaboratively and provide flexibility, enabling students to refine and effectively present their architectural proposals within the group design framework.

Moreover, during the urban design period, the design typically needs to reach the massing level, which used to be represented through site plans or axonometric views from a single angle. It is challenging to convey details like the scale of three-dimensional urban spaces. Therefore, hands-on manipulation through collaborative XR environments can provide easily adaptable scale models. Furthermore, using hands-on sketch-generated models can reduce the workload of developing individual buildings during urban design while offering more diverse design possibilities.

Specific urban design projects, such as the regional design for green corridors (P14), can offer a more immersive VR environment by simulating natural elements and other geographical information. Additionally, the transit-oriented development (TOD) design (P16) can simulate participants’ navigation within spatial effects, analysing pedestrian flow to verify whether the design effectively directs foot traffic.

4.2. History Related Project

A project solely concentrating on history involves curating research and restoration work on a traditional Chinese architecture model (P33). Instead of displaying design outcomes on posters, AR can be applied to on-site visualisation by directly linking research information with the components of the architectural model.

Furthermore, with the growing global awareness of historic preservation and urban renewal, most architectural graduation projects focus on historical districts, built heritage, and surrounding environments. The integration of architectural history within design studios is evident in the following two aspects, categorised by the scale and attribute of the design objects.

4.2.1. History as Design Contexts

Some projects utilise historical environments as sites, emphasising the integration of new constructions. These projects range in scale, encompassing designs for individual buildings like campuses (P31), community centres (P41), and buildings with historical functions, such as World Heritage Centres (P42). Others address larger-scale design objects such as markets (P32, P44). Additionally, several projects focus on the urban renewal of historical districts (P01, P03, P06, P08, P21, P22, P28, P38, P39), aiming to revitalise these areas while preserving their historical significance.

In these projects, traditional site models, often simplified as white mass models, fail to represent historic areas’ material characteristics and spatial conditions accurately. Therefore, 360° VR videos or LiDAR-scanned site models can provide more authentic representations of heritage sites. Additionally, integrating annotations of site features and historical information with spatial analysis via in situ AR can improve context awareness throughout the investigation, design, and final presentation stages.

Additionally, several projects take a more theoretical approach, focusing on surveying and mapping historical buildings (P05) or a diagrammatic analysis of human activities within historical cities (P29). These projects concentrate on the representation of architectural history, where VR tours can offer immersive visits to historical sites, and 360° videos can capture living events, providing an embodied experience.

4.2.2. Heritage as a Design Object

Certain historical districts surrounding designated cultural heritage (P20, P43) are subject to strict renovations and development regulations. Although this application remains underutilised, XR can visualise regulatory boundaries, offering real-time reminders in on-site design environments and virtual simulations.

Additionally, heritage sites, including piers (P34), historical residences (P25), abandoned shipyards (P02, P37), power plant ruins (P12), Third Front structures (P17) and other industrial heritage sites (P04, P26), are particularly suitable for adaptive reuse. Preserving old structures while integrating new additions is crucial in these projects. Scanning and modelling these historic buildings, combined with virtual overlays, can intuitively represent the modifications to the heritage structures. Similarly, for low-carbon and energy-efficient renovations of historical buildings (P10, P35, P40), on-site displays can enhance the effectiveness of the modifications by establishing a relationship between performance and spatial design.

Furthermore, XR for on-site presentations and immersive simulation with interactive modification can involve stakeholders, such as residents, in the evaluation process. This approach helps students become familiar with real-world, multi-stakeholder design processes, which lack systematic and practical applications.

4.3. Technical Aspects of Architecture Design

Traditional performance analysis mainly uses mass models or line drawings in simulation software, which offer limited spatial perception. For office building design in hot summer and cold winter regions (P09), XR simulations allow students to explore climate scenarios by adjusting the building’s orientation and materials. This dynamic and immersive approach can improve students’ understanding of how design choices influence energy consumption under varying climate conditions, providing a deeper understanding of sustainable design principles.

Similarly, for hotel soundproofing (P13) and immersive theatre design (P30), integrating acoustic simulations with three-dimensional virtual spaces, instead of relying on Ecotect’s plan or section views, allows students to gain a more intuitive understanding of how materials shape these spaces with immediate modifications and feedback. For instance, students could visualise sound paths and immerse themselves in a simulated sound environment using spatial audio technology. This setup would replicate real-world acoustics, enabling the students to adjust materials, room layouts, and speaker placements while immediately perceiving the impacts of these changes.

Additionally, projects related to specific materials like special concrete (P24, P36) and interactive facades (P15, P23) often require on-site construction of architectural structures or components in the final phase, which may fail due to the separation of simulation and actual construction processes. AR and MR can provide real-time teaching and performance evaluation during construction. Furthermore, asynchronous construction and collaborative environments can assist students in accurately determining the position and form of components for better assembly.

4.4. Specialised Architectural Design

Projects focusing on architectural design are typically more complex. They concentrate on the interplay between structural form (P19, P40), details (P07, P18), and spatial design, often overlooking the influence of technical factors in practical applications. Integrating XR simulation is expected to provide an immersive visualisation of spatial design effects and enhance the practical aspects of these projects.

Additionally, some projects focus on special populations, particularly older people (P11, P27). As most students lack direct experience with the needs of older adults, often depending on guidelines for the design, VR can simulate the perspective of older people, enabling students to experience and understand the needs of this demographic authentically.

5. Discussion

The previous section summarises the potential applications of XR in design studios. This section further explores opportunities for incorporating XR into comprehensive architectural design education, highlighting how these applications can more effectively address the evolving needs of architectural design pedagogy (Figure 7).

5.1. Impact of XR Applications on Architectural Design Studios

The integration of XR offers transformative potential for the methods, objects, and participants involved in architectural design education, preparing students for the complexities and challenges of modern architectural practice.

5.1.1. Design Methods to Be Applied

For designers, unlike traditional methods of drawing abstract sketches on paper or refining digital models on screens, XR allows for real-time modifications to design models through hands-on approaches like gesture interactions, specialised VR controllers, or AR pens, ensuring a unified representation of conceptualised designs and their spatial effects. This application deepens students’ spatial awareness and offers a more dynamic and interactive presentation.

As the traditional linear design process is irreversible, issues are often discovered only at advanced stages, leading to discrepancies between the initial concept and the final presentation. Therefore, by generating designs from hand-drawn sketches, XR enables the comparison of multiple design options. This approach enhances the spatial details in urban design projects and allows for real-time feedback at the sketch stage.

Furthermore, XR technologies offer greater flexibility and diversity in the potential locations for design studios. Traditionally, design review and presentation settings are frequently distant from the actual sites. However, with AR’s capabilities for on-site visualisation and the potential for cross-space and cross-platform collaboration, it becomes feasible to conduct design evaluations in a broader range of environments.

5.1.2. Objects to Be Designed

XR’s realistic reproduction of the site allows for a deeper consideration of the relationship between design objects and their contexts. In addition, AR-based on-site analysis and presentation can provide a more authentic spatial perception. Additionally, XR can simulate the spatial experiences of special populations, such as individuals with disabilities and older people, thereby enhancing students’ empathy and improving the inclusivity of their designs.

Furthermore, XR expands the scope of design by considering intangible social attributes. By recording or simulating daily activities within the building, XR enables a deeper understanding of the relationship between architectural spaces and human behaviours, facilitating a user-centred design approach. Additionally, for buildings’ technical performance, XR offers a more integrated design and dynamic analysis experience for various performance metrics, ensuring that the functional and spatial effects are thoroughly examined and optimised.

5.1.3. Designers to Be Involved

XR enables cross-platform and cross-space digital collaboration, allowing stakeholders such as students, faculty, industry professionals, and local communities to participate in the design and review process beyond temporal and spatial constraints. For example, on-site AR or MR applications can facilitate real-time design investigation, review and presentation, fostering greater public engagement and bridging the gap between academic and professional practises. This immersive interaction more effectively tests students’ communication skills with different interest groups, preparing them for the complexities of real-world projects.

Moreover, XR supports interdisciplinary collaboration by creating shared virtual environments where students from different disciplines can work together on integrated design tasks. Faculty can invite industry professionals to join these virtual sessions, providing practical insights and constructive feedback. Including local communities in these collaborative processes also ensures that cultural and contextual factors are considered, leading to innovative and socially relevant designs.

Additionally, due to the diversity and improvement in collaboration methods, heterogeneous collaborative environments enable students and instructors to refine designs more frequently in different digital settings. Furthermore, instructors can use dynamic and real-time simulation feedback to promptly assess the feasibility of student designs and provide immediate modification suggestions rather than relying solely on verbal descriptions or abstract sketches.

5.2. Potential Improvement of XR Applications and Design Studio

Through the analysis of XR applications and the structure of design courses, it is evident that both areas have significant room for improvement.

5.2.1. Potential Adjustment of Design Studio Curricula

As for the course design topic, the application of XR in the industry has shown significant potential for enhancing design presentations and offering tailored options to end-users, particularly in self-built housing. As urban development in China increasingly shifts toward redeveloping existing structures [75], the emergence of “To-Consumer” projects, where designers directly collaborate with clients, has become more common. Despite this shift, most architectural studio projects continue to focus on public buildings, and students typically do not have the opportunity to interact with clients directly. Integrating XR into architectural education would allow students to interact with virtual clients, refining their designs based on real-time feedback. This would also provide a more engaging way to present designs, simulating real-world interactions often missed in traditional studio projects, which focus mainly on public buildings and lack direct client engagement.

Furthermore, in terms of design exploration, current design projects often overlook critical aspects such as lighting and illumination, which are essential performance factors in building design. XR technologies could play a key role in addressing this gap by providing integrated XR performance simulation platforms that incorporate these parameters, allowing for a more comprehensive analysis of design outcomes. This approach would enhance the design process and give students a deeper understanding of their designs’ environmental and sensory qualities. By integrating XR into the curriculum, students would be encouraged to consider a wider range of architectural factors, mirroring real-world design challenges that require attention to every detail.

Regarding assessment methods, changes should focus on making evaluations more comprehensive by considering the final design outcomes and practical factors such as circulation, performance, and user experience. This would involve assessing how effectively students use XR to explore and refine these aspects throughout each phase of the design process. Furthermore, incorporating input from multiple stakeholders—including faculty, industry professionals, and even virtual clients—would allow for a richer evaluation that mirrors real-world conditions. By embedding assessments at various stages of the design process, students can receive iterative feedback, enabling continuous improvement and ensuring that each design aspect is fully developed and tested.

5.2.2. Possible Supplement of XR Application

Heritage-related design projects could benefit from visualising regulatory constraints within their site contexts to enhance existing application frameworks. This would enable students and instructors to assess whether designs comply with relevant regulations intuitively. In terms of performance analysis, the study highlights the insufficient integration of XR with simulation software for material and structural analysis, such as ETABS. Additionally, while XR is currently employed to analyse user behaviours during early design stages, this study identifies the potential for its use in validating design outcomes, particularly in transit-oriented development (TOD) projects, where the pedestrian flow can be examined.

Despite XR’s multi-sensory feedback capabilities, most simulations rely predominantly on visual representations processed by software. However, research by Hong and Kwon [37] demonstrated that even without a three-dimensional visual environment, sound rendering can stimulate auditory perception, providing users with a direct sense of a space’s acoustic quality. This particularly benefits design projects, such as theatres, where sound quality is crucial.

In the context of specific design challenges, there is a notable deficiency in integrating XR applications with the unique characteristics of urban renewal and heritage-related projects. The technological challenges and development frameworks remain inadequately defined, limiting the effective incorporation of heritage values and integrating public participation in these projects.

5.3. Limitations and Future Work

5.3.1. Global Applicability of XR in Architectural Design Curriculum

The case study in this paper is based on undergraduate architectural design graduation projects from the School of Architecture, Southeast University. Although the Canberra Accord on Architectural Education recognises the programme, it incorporates features required by the Chinese higher education system, which may limit its direct applicability to other global contexts. However, Southeast University follows an internationalised teaching model, with courses and projects aligned with global architectural education standards. This approach enhances the relevance of the findings beyond the local context.

Despite this, the transferability of the findings to different international settings remains a consideration, particularly in regions with varying technological infrastructure, educational practises, and cultural contexts. Future research could explore how XR applications in architectural education can be adapted to different educational systems. Cross-cultural studies comparing the integration of XR in curricula across countries could also provide valuable insights into the broader applicability of these findings.

5.3.2. Expanding the Scope of XR in Architectural Design Education

Furthermore, this case study focuses on architectural projects, excluding urban planning and landscape architecture. Despite this focus, the findings are broadly applicable as the analysis addresses fundamental architectural design characteristics, ensuring their universal relevance. Although this focus may seem limiting, the analysis addresses core architectural design characteristics—such as spatial perception, form-making, and design thinking—that are foundational to the broader field of built-environment education. The findings, therefore, have broad applicability, particularly in contexts involving the simulation of natural environments, large-scale urban planning, or collaborative design initiatives. Further research could explore how XR technology might be applied in urban planning or landscape architecture education, extending the scope of this study.

5.3.3. Practical and Ethical Challenges

The study has not examined the financial costs or resource implications of implementing and developing XR applications in architectural education. While low-cost alternatives have been identified [76], implementing XR technology may still pose significant financial challenges for institutions with limited funding. These challenges include the initial hardware, software licences, maintenance costs, and the potential need for staff training. Future research should investigate cost-effective models for XR integration.

Moreover, technical constraints such as latency, hardware compatibility, and steep learning curves for students and instructors remain critical barriers to XR adoption. Addressing these issues requires collaboration with developers to optimise XR platforms for academic settings. Additionally, providing introductory training modules for students and faculty could ease the transition and improve the usability of XR applications in design education.

In addition, the ethical implications of XR, such as data privacy and equitable access, are important, but they are not fully addressed in this study. XR involves collecting personal data, raising privacy concerns. Institutions should follow data protection regulations and set clear rules for data use. Equitable access is also challenging, as resource gaps may limit some students’ participation. Universities can address this by creating shared XR labs or offering portable devices to ensure all students can access the technology. Furthermore, faculty training must be addressed to ensure instructors are well-equipped to manage both the technical and ethical issues related to XR integration, enabling them to teach and guide students in this new learning environment effectively.

6. Conclusions

This study systematically reviews the existing literature and potential applications of XR in architectural design. It examines their impact on studio pedagogy by analysing 45 graduation design projects from the School of Architecture, Southeast University, over the past three years. The review identifies key areas where XR can enhance architectural design, specifically visualisation, interaction, and collaboration. By integrating these technical features with the core focus of architectural design projects, the findings advocate for improvements in design methods, expansion of the scope of design objectives, and greater inclusion of diverse stakeholders through XR applications.

The study contributes to the field by providing a framework for integrating XR into architectural education, which could reshape design pedagogy and practice. By examining the application of XR technologies in the industry, this study suggests key changes to architectural education, such as aligning design topics with industry-relevant issues, broadening the scope of course content, and adopting dynamic, flexible assessment methods. Additionally, it emphasises the need for design studios to better align with evolving market trends, particularly the rise in “To-Consumer” projects, ensuring that architectural education stays responsive to the profession’s changing demands. The study also highlights opportunities for improving XR integration in architectural design education by expanding practical applications, such as comprehensive performance simulations and visualisations. It further advocates for developing tailored frameworks for heritage-related and urban renewal projects.

Future research should focus on developing practical frameworks for incorporating XR into architectural curricula across diverse educational and cultural contexts globally. These frameworks should address technical barriers such as cost and latency, and they should explore interdisciplinary applications that connect architecture with fields like engineering and urban planning. Furthermore, future studies must examine ethical considerations, including data privacy and equitable access, to ensure the inclusive adoption of XR technologies across different educational settings and communities.