A Review of Concrete Carbonation and Approaches to Its Research under Irradiation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Carbonation Process and Methods for Its Research
2.1. Chemical and Physical Meanings of the Carbonation Process
2.2. Accelerated Laboratory Testing for Carbonation Research
2.3. Possible Research Methods for Studying Carbonation
3. Existing Mathematical Models and Computer/Numerical Methods for the Calculation of Concrete Carbonation
3.1. Fundamentals of Carbonation Modeling
3.2. Predicting the Service Life of Concrete Structures Using the Existing Mathematical Models
4. The State of Research of Concrete Carbonation Process under Radiation
4.1. The Influence of Radiation on the Concrete Structures of NPP
- Gamma radiations have no effect on the concrete properties up to 1010 Gy;
- At fluences of fast neutrons more than ∼1019 neutron/cm2, a significant degradation of concrete occurs, and the volume of the aggregates increases with such irradiation, which causes shrinkage of the HCP, resulting in intense cracking;
- The defined value of concrete shrinkage strain at a dose of 5 × 1019 neutron/cm2 is about 2% for Portland cement and 0.3% for aluminous cement;
- Volume increase in the aggregate changes depending on the type of aggregate: at a fluence of 5 × 1019 neutron/cm2, it is approximately 1.0% for flint, 0.9% for limestone, and 0.1% for serpentinite used as a filler in the concrete of the biological protection of the reactor;
- Based on the obtained data on the volumetric expansion of the aggregate and the deformation of concrete during irradiation, it is noted that the actual values of these parameters are greater than the calculated ones;
- The calculated and actual value of the concrete expansion ratio differ significantly during irradiation, and the researchers in [122] explained this by the aggregate mineralogical composition impact on the carbonation process;
- In the case of a high content of silicon oxide in the aggregate, the actual value of the concrete expansion rate is greater, e.g., the concrete expansion rate for a sample with siliceous aggregate is about five times higher than for a sample with limestone;
- When irradiated, only a slight expansion of crystalline quartz is observed, whereas the usage of quartz as an aggregate for concrete causes a significant concrete expansion at a fluence of 3 × 1019 neutrons/cm2, and, at the same time, the deterioration of the concrete mechanical properties due to irradiation with fast neutrons is greater for concretes with a higher deformation degree;
- The negative effect of irradiation on the concrete tensile strength is more significant than on the compressive strength, and this statement suggests that the degradation of concrete under the influence of fast neutrons occurs not simply due to a violation of the structure of the cement paste and aggregates but rather due to complex internal processes inside the irradiated cement and aggregates.
4.2. Extending the Service Life of NPP Concrete Structures Based on Changes in the Concrete Properties
4.3. Influence of Various Factors on Concrete Carbonation under Irradiation
4.3.1. Effect of Gamma Radiation on Concrete Carbonation
- Hydrolysis of molecular water occurs, and, at this time, H2O2 peroxide is formed;
- H2O2 reacts with calcium (contained in cement), and, as a result of this reaction, CaO2·8H2O peroxide octahydrate is formed;
- This substance is metastable and decomposes as a result of subsequent carbonation reactions, and, eventually, calcium peroxide and water are formed;
- CaO2 reacts with H2O, and the formation of portlandite Ca(OH)2 and oxygen occurs;
- Portlandite and CO2 react, carbon dioxide enters the concrete through the pores, and, as a result of the reaction, calcite CaCO3 and water are formed.
4.3.2. Effect of Neutron Radiation on Concrete Carbonation
- The neutron irradiation of concrete at energy density levels of 1.0 × 1019 neutron/cm2 and above can significantly reduce the compressive strength (with the lower limits of concrete durability at 50% of the estimated value);
- The tensile strength of concrete is more susceptible to neutron radiation than the compressive strength;
- At a density levels of 1.0 × 1019 neutron/cm2 and above, a gradual decrease in the elasticity modulus was observed, and, in this case, it should be taken into account that the effect of elevated temperature is also observed in this range of irradiation density, which should also be taken into account in the calculations;
- Data indicate that silica aggregates pose the highest risk of adverse effects on concrete due to its tendency to amorphize under the influence of neutron irradiation, the increase in volume, and the higher thermal expansion coefficient;
- It is expected that the calculated fluence of fast neutrons (with an energy of more than 0.1 MeV) in the LWR biological shield will reach levels over a long period of operation (more than 40 years) at which negative changes in the concrete’s physical and mechanical properties will be significant.
4.3.3. Effect of Other Notable Factors on Concrete Carbonation under Irradiation
- The silicate aggregates’ reactivity significantly increases under the influence of irradiation, although the occurrence of ASR is not guaranteed due to the different initial conditions necessary for this;
- The concrete of the reactor containment does not receive the highest dose of radiation;
- The calculated absorbed dose of gamma radiation for NPP concrete with a service life of 60 years is about 109 Gy, and this value is below the critical level at which significant physical and mechanical changes in concrete occur.
- Calculation of the active alkali content in the concrete mixture in accordance with the French recommendations LCPC 1994, and active alkali in concrete includes active alkali from all concrete components (cement, aggregates, water, etc.);
- The validation of the aggregate in accordance with the French LCPC 1994 guidelines (non-reactive, potentially reactive, or potentially reactive with passivating effect);
- Characterization of the concrete structure from an environmental point of view (elevated temperature, humidity, or normal operating conditions).
5. Conclusions
6. Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Hydrates | Carbonation Products |
---|---|
Ca(OH)2 | CaCO3, H2O |
C-S-H | CaCO3, H2O, silica gel |
Calcium aluminate hydrate | CaCO3, H2O, aluminate gel |
Hydrated ferrite phases | CaCO3, H2O, iron oxides, aluminate gel |
Calcium monosulfoaluminate, ettringite | Gypsum, H2O, aluminate gel |
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Medvedev, V.; Pustovgar, A. A Review of Concrete Carbonation and Approaches to Its Research under Irradiation. Buildings 2023, 13, 1998. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13081998
Medvedev V, Pustovgar A. A Review of Concrete Carbonation and Approaches to Its Research under Irradiation. Buildings. 2023; 13(8):1998. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13081998
Chicago/Turabian StyleMedvedev, Vyacheslav, and Andrey Pustovgar. 2023. "A Review of Concrete Carbonation and Approaches to Its Research under Irradiation" Buildings 13, no. 8: 1998. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13081998