Measured Impact of Material Settlement in a Timber-Frame Wall with Loose Fill Insulation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Temperature and Relative Humidity
2.2. Impact on Building Thermal Performance
3. Results
3.1. Temperature
3.2. Relative Humidity
3.3. Thermal Performance
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
- Due to the relatively low heat storage capacity of the studied structures, it is possible to compare measurements even in years where the minimum air temperature differs by 7.4 °C;
- The largest measured difference in temperature and relative humidity was at the upper location, where the most pronounced air cavity was previously discovered. This difference represented an 8 °C change in temperature and 45% relative humidity;
- The difference decreased rapidly as one progressed into the interior without affecting the internal surface temperature of the structure;
- The creation of this thermal bridge at the synchronous increase in relative humidity leads to an increased risk of mold formation and growth;
- An additional layer of thermal insulation on the interior side ensured constant conditions on the inner surface of the wall;
- The significant difference in temperature and relative humidity in the upper position did not affect the conditions in the lower two positions;
- The middle air cavity did not cause a difference in relative humidity. However, it did affect the temperature by 4 °C;
- The measured parameters in the lowest position were not affected by any of the upper defects;
- Despite the initial hypothesis, it turned out that these local thermal bridges did not have a significant impact on the specific heating demand during the winter season;
- In our case, the defects increased the risk of mold growth in the structure itself. In the case of using only blown-in thermal insulation, these defects could cause mold growth on the internal surface, as well as significantly increase the specific heat demand for heating and thus affect the energy balance.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Nr. | GENERAL INFORMATION | ||||||||
1 | Building name: | Single-family house | |||||||
2 | Location: | Žilina, Slovakia | |||||||
Calculation of heating demand | |||||||||
INPUT DATA | |||||||||
3 | Building | Building category (single use) | Building for living | ||||||
4 | Year of approval | 2023 | |||||||
5 | Year of last thermal protection change | 2023 | |||||||
6 | Type, construction system, building system (apartment buildings) | Wood-frame | |||||||
7 | Building width | 10.35 m | |||||||
8 | Building length | 8.0 m | |||||||
9 | Building height | 7.1 m | |||||||
10 | Number of floors | 2 | |||||||
11 | Building volume | 587.88 m3 | |||||||
12 | Total floor area | 130.9 m2 | |||||||
13 | Total heat exchange surface | 397.6 m2 | |||||||
14 | Average construction height | 3 | |||||||
15 | Form factor | 0.75 | |||||||
16 | Calc. | Calculation method | seasonal | ||||||
17 | Number of daily degrees | 3422 K.day | |||||||
Heat loss | Description/name of the building envelope | Heat transfer coefficient of the structure Ui [W/m2K] | Heat exchange surface Ai [m2] | Temperature reduction factor b [−] | |||||
Envelope structure: | |||||||||
18 | 1 | Exterior wall | 0.0959 | 220.28 | 1 | ||||
Roof: | |||||||||
19 | 2 | Green roof | 0.1 | 80 | 1 | ||||
Floor: | |||||||||
20 | 1 | Terrain floor | 0.096 | 80 | 1 | ||||
Openings: | |||||||||
21 | 1 | Window 1000 × 1500, 2 pcs | 0.661 | 3 | 1 | ||||
22 | 2 | Window 2000 × 1500, 4 pcs | 0.62 | 12 | 1 | ||||
23 | 3 | Window 1500 × 600, 2 pcs | 0.721 | 1.8 | 1 | ||||
24 | 4 | Window 1000 × 600, 1 pcs | 0.74 | 0.6 | 1 | ||||
25 | 5 | Doors | 1.92 | 1 | |||||
26 | Average heat transfer coefficient Um | 0.121 | W/m2K | ||||||
27 | Thermal conductivity (transmittance) of the floor and walls in a heated basement | - | W/K | ||||||
28 | Impact of thermal bridges ∆U | 0.05 | W/m2K | ||||||
29 | Increase in heat loss due to thermal bridges ∆HTM | 19.88 | W/K | ||||||
Heat loss | Description of the openings | Total length of joints of openings l [m] | Air permeability coefficient of window openings i.104 [m2/(s.Pa0.67)] | ||||||
30 | 1 | Window 1000 × 1500, 2 pcs | 8.88 | 0.00005 | |||||
31 | 2 | Window 2000 × 1500, 4 pcs | 25.76 | 0.00005 | |||||
32 | 3 | Window 1500 × 600, 2 pcs | 2.62 | 0.00005 | |||||
33 | 4 | Window 1000 × 600, 1 pcs | 5.28 | 0.00005 | |||||
34 | Building characteristic number B (if used for air change calculation) | - | Pa0.67 | ||||||
35 | Average air exchange rate calculated n | 0.091 | l/h | ||||||
36 | Measured airtightness n50 | - | l/h | ||||||
37 | Considered average air exchange rate n | 0.5 | l/h | ||||||
38 | Heat recovery unit | - | |||||||
39 | Efficiency of the heat recovery unit | - | % | ||||||
40 | Proportion of air passing through the unit | - | m3 | ||||||
41 | Heat gain | Thermal output of the indoor source q | 6 | W/m2 | |||||
42 | Internal heat gains Qi | 3927 | kWh/a | ||||||
Orientation | Solar radiation intensity Isj [kWh/m2] | Solar transmittance g [−] | Shading factor [−] | Area of glazed opening structures A [m2] | Effective collection area, full sections A [m2] (cooling) | ||||
43 | 1 | North | 100 | - | - | 4.8 | 4.8 | ||
44 | 2 | South | 320 | - | - | 12 | 12 | ||
45 | 3 | East | 200 | - | - | 0.6 | 0.6 | ||
46 | Solar heat gains | 4440 | kWh/a | ||||||
Heating demand | Seasonal method | ||||||||
47 | Specific heat loss through transition Ht | 67.85 | W/K | ||||||
48 | Specific heat loss through ventilation Hv | 82.303 | W/K | ||||||
49 | Heat gain recovery factor | 0.95 | |||||||
50 | Specific heating demand—seasonal method | 33.45 | kWh/(m2a) |
Nr. | GENERAL INFORMATION | ||||||||
1 | Building name: | Single-family house | |||||||
2 | Location: | Žilina, Slovakia | |||||||
Calculation of heating demand | |||||||||
INPUT DATA | |||||||||
3 | Building | Building category (single use) | Building for living | ||||||
4 | Year of approval | 2023 | |||||||
5 | Year of last thermal protection change | 2023 | |||||||
6 | Type, construction system, building system (apartment buildings) | Wood-frame | |||||||
7 | Building width | 10.35 m | |||||||
8 | Building length | 8.0 m | |||||||
9 | Building height | 7.1 m | |||||||
10 | Number of floors | 2 | |||||||
11 | Building volume | 587.88 m3 | |||||||
12 | Total floor area | 130.9 m2 | |||||||
13 | Total heat exchange surface | 397.6 m2 | |||||||
14 | Average construction height | 3 | |||||||
15 | Form factor | 0.75 | |||||||
16 | Calc. | Calculation method | seasonal | ||||||
17 | Number of daily degrees | 3422 K.day | |||||||
Heat loss | Description/name of the building envelope | Heat transfer coefficient of the structure Ui [W/m2K] | Heat exchange surface Ai [m2] | Temperature reduction factor b [−] | |||||
Envelope structure: | |||||||||
18 | 1 | Exterior wall | 0.0940 | 220.28 | 1 | ||||
Roof: | |||||||||
19 | 2 | Green roof | 0.1 | 80 | 1 | ||||
Floor: | |||||||||
20 | 1 | Terrain floor | 0.096 | 80 | 1 | ||||
Openings: | |||||||||
21 | 1 | Window 1000 × 1500, 2 pcs | 0.661 | 3 | 1 | ||||
22 | 2 | Window 2000 × 1500, 4 pcs | 0.62 | 12 | 1 | ||||
23 | 3 | Window 1500 × 600, 2 pcs | 0.721 | 1.8 | 1 | ||||
24 | 4 | Window 1000 × 600, 1 pcs | 0.74 | 0.6 | 1 | ||||
25 | 5 | Doors | 1.92 | 1 | |||||
26 | Average heat transfer coefficient Um | 0.121 | W/m2K | ||||||
27 | Thermal conductivity (transmittance) of the floor and walls in a heated basement | - | W/K | ||||||
28 | Impact of thermal bridges ∆U | 0.05 | W/m2K | ||||||
29 | Increase in heat loss due to thermal bridges ∆HTM | 19.88 | W/K | ||||||
Heat loss | Description of the openings | Total length of joints of openings l [m] | Air permeability coefficient of window openings i.104 [m2/(s.Pa0.67)] | ||||||
30 | 1 | Window 1000 × 1500, 2 pcs | 8.88 | 0.00005 | |||||
31 | 2 | Window 2000 × 1500, 4 pcs | 25.76 | 0.00005 | |||||
32 | 3 | Window 1500 × 600, 2 pcs | 2.62 | 0.00005 | |||||
33 | 4 | Window 1000 × 600, 1 pcs | 5.28 | 0.00005 | |||||
34 | Building characteristic number B (if used for air change calculation) | - | Pa0.67 | ||||||
35 | Average air exchange rate calculated n | 0.091 | l/h | ||||||
36 | Measured airtightness n50 | - | l/h | ||||||
37 | Considered average air exchange rate n | 0.5 | l/h | ||||||
38 | Heat recovery unit | - | |||||||
39 | Efficiency of the heat recovery unit | - | % | ||||||
40 | Proportion of air passing through the unit | - | m3 | ||||||
41 | Heat gain | Thermal output of the indoor source q | 6 | W/m2 | |||||
42 | Internal heat gains Qi | 3927 | kWh/a | ||||||
Orientation | Solar radiation intensity Isj [kWh/m2] | Solar transmittance g [−] | Shading factor [−] | Area of glazed opening structures A [m2] | Effective collection area, full sections A [m2] (cooling) | ||||
43 | 1 | North | 100 | - | - | 4.8 | 4.8 | ||
44 | 2 | South | 320 | - | - | 12 | 12 | ||
45 | 3 | East | 200 | - | - | 0.6 | 0.6 | ||
46 | Solar heat gains | 4440 | kWh/a | ||||||
Heating demand | Seasonal method | ||||||||
47 | Specific heat loss through transition Ht | 67.531 | W/K | ||||||
48 | Specific heat loss through ventilation Hv | 82.303 | W/K | ||||||
49 | Heat gain recovery factor | 0.95 | |||||||
50 | Specific heating demand—seasonal method | 33.19 | kWh/(m2a) |
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Material | ρ 1 [kg/m3] | λ 2 [W/(m2.K)] | μ 3 [−] | c 4 [J/(kg.K)] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Silicon render | 1600 | 0.860 | 130 | 920 |
Adhesive render with mesh fabric | 1660 | 0.900 | 20 | 900 |
Layered TI—30 mm basalt fiber and 90 mm grey polystyrene | 25 | 0.033 | 30 | 1100 |
Blown-in glass fiber TI | 35 | 0.043 | 1 | 940 |
TI—rigid phenolic foam | 35 | 0.021 | 35 | 1400 |
OSB 3 | 650 | 0.130 | 50 | 1700 |
Measurement Position | Year | Probe Position 1 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
θ e | θ x.1 | θ x.2 | θ x.2′ | θ x.3 | θ x.4 | θ x.5 | θ i | ||
Top | 2019 | −9.80 | −15.79 | 0.07 | - | 13.71 | 19.54 | 19.21 | 19.34 |
2022 | −9.80 | −15.05 | 7.99 | - | 16.71 | 19.15 | 18.90 | 19.04 | |
Middle | 2019 | −9.80 | −16.58 | −2.40 | 9.35 | 5.59 | 14.3 | 18.81 | 19.34 |
2022 | −9.80 | −16.33 | −1.43 | 11.12 | 9.54 | 14.8 | 18.86 | 19.04 | |
Bottom | 2019 | −9.80 | −16.46 | −3.64 | - | 11.45 | - | 18.74 | 19.34 |
2022 | −9.80 | −16.21 | −2.23 | - | 12.98 | - | 18.5 | 19.04 |
Measurement Position | Year | Probe Position 1 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RH e | RH x.2 | RH x.2′ | RH x.3 | RH x.5 | RH i | ||
Top | 2019 | 88 | 90 | - | 36 | 32 | 30 |
2022 | 86 | 45 | - | 27 | 25 | 23 | |
Middle | 2019 | 88 | 83 | 43 | 32 | 28 | 30 |
2022 | 86 | 76 | 37 | 28 | 25 | 23 | |
Bottom | 2019 | 88 | 75 | - | 31 | 29 | 30 |
2022 | 86 | 74 | - | 31 | 25 | 23 |
Variant | |||
---|---|---|---|
1—Old | 2—New | ||
Specific heating demand [kWh/(m2.a)] | 33.45 | 33.19 | |
Total floor area A [m2] | 130.9 | 130.9 | |
Annual demand [kWh/a] | 4378.605 | 4344.571 | |
Regional pricing [€/kWh] | Gas | 0.042 | 0.042 |
Electricity | 0.0998 | 0.0998 | |
Financial costs [€] | Gas | 183.90 | 182.472 |
Electricity | 436.98 | 433.59 |
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Michálková, D.; Ďurica, P. Measured Impact of Material Settlement in a Timber-Frame Wall with Loose Fill Insulation. Buildings 2023, 13, 1622. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13071622
Michálková D, Ďurica P. Measured Impact of Material Settlement in a Timber-Frame Wall with Loose Fill Insulation. Buildings. 2023; 13(7):1622. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13071622
Chicago/Turabian StyleMichálková, Daniela, and Pavol Ďurica. 2023. "Measured Impact of Material Settlement in a Timber-Frame Wall with Loose Fill Insulation" Buildings 13, no. 7: 1622. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13071622
APA StyleMichálková, D., & Ďurica, P. (2023). Measured Impact of Material Settlement in a Timber-Frame Wall with Loose Fill Insulation. Buildings, 13(7), 1622. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13071622