Sewage Sludge Valorization for Collapsible Soil Improvement
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Physical Characterization
2.2.2. Chemical Characterization
- pH—the pH in the soil and sludge samples indicates the presence of exchangeable aluminum and also the predominance of clay in weathering process, which is verified by the variation of the pH in water and the pH in KCl;
- Organic carbon and organic matter—the amount of organic matter in the soil defines the formation of a greater or lesser amount of aggregate in the structure, and aggregates formed by organic matter contents higher than 3.5% are considered unstable;
- Exchangeable acidity—the actual acidity is used to determine the effective cation exchange capacity (CTC), also defined as the sum of bases;
- Electrical conductivity—the electrical conductivity in the saturation extract defines the amount of existing salts (cations and anions);
- Specific surface area and methylene blue adsorption—the larger the specific surface area of the clay mineral, the greater the amount of methylene blue adsorbed and the smaller the particle size.
2.2.3. Scanning Electron Microscopy
2.2.4. Double and Single Oedometer Test
3. Results
3.1. Physical Characterization of Soil, Sludge and Soil-Sludge Mixtures
3.2. Chemical Characterization of Soil, Sludge, and Mixtures of Soil and Sludge
3.3. Oedometer Tests
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Maximum Concentration (mg/kg Dry Mass) | ||
---|---|---|
Metal | STP | CONMA 375/06 |
As | 0.41 | 41 |
Ba | 242.45 | 1300 |
Cd | 1.86 | 39 |
Pb | 9.66 | 300 |
Cu | 20.89 | 1500 |
Cr | 10.49 | 1000 |
Hg | 0.16 | 17 |
Mo | 23.21 | 50 |
Ni | 8.73 | 420 |
Se | 0.22 | 100 |
Zn | 86.54 | 2800 |
Material | γd (kN/m3) | Sand (%) | Silt (%) | Clay (%) | Classification | wopt (%) | γdmax (kN/m3) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unified | TRB | |||||||
Soil | 26.16 | 88 | 3 | 9 | SM | A-2-4 | 8.66 | 18.18 |
Sludge | 16.27 | 96 | 4 | 0 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Soil + 5% sludge | 23.99 | 90 | 3 | 7 | SM | A-2-4 | 12.34 | 17.66 |
Soil + 10% sludge | 23.54 | 92 | 4 | 4 | SM | A-3 | 13.28 | 18.14 |
Soil + 15% sludge | 22.84 | 92 | 4 | 4 | SM-SP | A-2-4 | 12.46 | 15.85 |
Properties | Soil | Sludge | Soil—Sludge Mixture | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5% | 10% | 15% | |||
pH in water | 6.08 | 7.22 | 6.9 | 7.01 | 7.13 |
pH in KCl | 6.00 | 7.30 | 7.06 | 7.15 | 7.18 |
Organic carbon (g/kg) | 1.07 | 14.29 | 8.60 | 9.67 | 11.46 |
Organic matter (g/kg)) | 1.85 | 24.64 | 14.82 | 16.67 | 19.76 |
Mg2+ exchangeable (cmol/kg) | 3.30 | 11.00 | 3.00 | 0.20 | 1.50 |
Na+ exchangeable (cmol/kg) | 0.30 | 185.80 | 10.40 | 22.30 | 26.90 |
K+ exchangeable (cmol/kg) | 0.20 | 18.40 | 1.30 | 1.90 | 2.20 |
H+ + Al3+ extracted (cmol/kg) | 8.10 | 8.90 | 6.01 | 6.67 | 7.37 |
H+ exchangeable (cmol/kg) | 7.70 | 8.80 | 5.71 | 6.27 | 6.95 |
Value of V (% Sat. of Base) | 0.38 | 0.97 | 0.76 | 0.83 | 0.86 |
% Fe2O3 in Ext. Sulfuric (g/kg) | 0.50 | 2.25 | 0.63 | 0.75 | 0.88 |
% Al2O3 in Ext. Sulfuric (g/kg) | 1.50 | 3.30 | 1.50 | 3.20 | 3.40 |
Electrical conductivity (mS/cm at 25 °C) | 10 | 9769 | 2708 | 3670 | 5940 |
Specific surface (m2/g) | 18.40 | 14.70 | 3.70 | 11.00 | 11.00 |
Vertical Flood Stress (kPa) | Collapse Potential—CP (%) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dry Specific Weight—15.0 kN/m3 | Dry Specific Weight—17.0 kN/m3 | |||||||
0% Sludge | 5% Sludge | 10% Sludge | 15% Sludge | 0% Sludge | 5% Sludge | 10% Sludge | 15% Sludge | |
10 | 0.11 | 0.13 | −0.49 | −0.92 | 0.11 | −0.11 | −0.37 | −1.12 |
20 | 0.50 | 0.16 | −0.06 | −0.04 | 0.41 | −0.05 | −0.29 | −0.60 |
40 | 1.30 | 0.40 | 0.52 | 0.05 | 0.45 | 0.32 | 0.02 | −0.31 |
80 | 3.75 | 1.30 | 1.03 | 0.29 | 0.61 | 0.49 | 0.76 | 0.65 |
160 | 4.99 | 2.15 | 1.30 | 0.80 | 0.63 | 0.63 | 0.78 | 1.26 |
320 | 6.61 | 4.50 | 1.96 | 1.67 | 0.88 | 0.53 | 0.79 | 1.61 |
640 | 5.81 | 5.45 | 2.81 | 2.53 | 1.64 | 0.41 | 1.08 | 2.21 |
Samples | Test Type | Coefficients and Parameters | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Compression Index | Vertical Stress Range (kPa) | Expansion Index | Compression Index | ||
Sand + 0% sludge | Natural | 0.046 | 10–80 | 0.015 | 115.61 |
0.055 | 160–640 | ||||
Flooded | 0.111 | 10–80 | 0.021 | 73.96 | |
0.129 | 160–640 | ||||
Sand + 5% sludge | Natural | 0.044 | 10–80 | 0.016 | 150.31 |
0.090 | 160–640 | ||||
Flooded | 0.111 | 10–80 | 0.021 | 125.89 | |
0.165 | 160–640 | ||||
Sand + 10% sludge | Natural | 0.040 | 10–80 | 0.018 | 81.85 |
0.078 | 160–640 | ||||
Flooded | 0.091 | 10–80 | 0.021 | 64.82 | |
0.165 | 160–640 | ||||
Sand + 15% sludge | Natural | 0.038 | 10–80 | 0.015 | 80 |
0.071 | 160–640 | ||||
Flooded | 0.096 | 10–80 | 0.021 | 40 | |
0.109 | 160–640 |
Samples | Test Type | Coefficients and Parameters | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Compression Index | Vertical Stress Range (kPa) | Expansion Index | Pre-Consolidation Stress (kPa) | ||
Sand + 0% sludge | Natural | 0.023 | 10–80 | 0.014 | 147.23 |
0.042 | 160–640 | ||||
Flooded | 0.049 | 10–80 | 0.017 | 231.06 | |
0.079 | 160–640 | ||||
Sand + 5% sludge | Natural | 0.035 | 10–80 | 0.015 | 128.33 |
0.057 | 160–640 | ||||
Flooded | 0.070 | 10–80 | 0.018 | 207.49 | |
0.089 | 160–640 | ||||
Sand + 10% sludge | Natural | 0.039 | 10–80 | 0.016 | 118.23 |
0.066 | 160–640 | ||||
Flooded | 0.052 | 10–80 | 0.018 | 54.50 | |
0.092 | 160–640 | ||||
Sand + 15% sludge | Natural | 0.039 | 10–80 | 0.021 | 126.64 |
0.069 | 160–640 | ||||
Flooded | 0.076 | 10–80 | 0.025 | 66.15 | |
0.110 | 160–640 |
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Feitosa, M.C.A.; Ferreira, S.R.M.; Delgado, J.M.P.Q.; Silva, F.A.N.; Oliveira, J.T.R.; Oliveira, P.E.S.; Azevedo, A.C. Sewage Sludge Valorization for Collapsible Soil Improvement. Buildings 2023, 13, 338. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020338
Feitosa MCA, Ferreira SRM, Delgado JMPQ, Silva FAN, Oliveira JTR, Oliveira PES, Azevedo AC. Sewage Sludge Valorization for Collapsible Soil Improvement. Buildings. 2023; 13(2):338. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020338
Chicago/Turabian StyleFeitosa, Maria C. A., Sílvio R. M. Ferreira, João M. P. Q. Delgado, Fernando A. N. Silva, Joaquim T. R. Oliveira, Pedro E. S. Oliveira, and António C. Azevedo. 2023. "Sewage Sludge Valorization for Collapsible Soil Improvement" Buildings 13, no. 2: 338. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020338