Effect of Nano TiO2 Flux on Depth of Penetration and Mechanical Properties of TIG-Welded SA516 Grade 70 Steel Joints—An Experimental Investigation
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Fusion Welding of SA516 70 Gd. Alloy
2.2. Activated TIG (A-TIG) Welding of Carbon Steels
2.3. Activated TIG (A-TIG) Welding of Alloy Steels
2.4. A-TIG Welding of Ferrous Alloys Using Nanoparticles
3. Materials and Methods
- Depth of Penetration: evaluating how nano TiO2 flux influences the depth of penetration compared to conventional TIG welding techniques.
- Weld Microstructure: analyzing changes in the weld microstructure resulting from the use of nano TiO2 flux.
- Mechanical Properties: assessing the mechanical properties of the weld, including strength and toughness, with the application of nano TiO2 flux.
- Process Comparison: comparing the novel nano TiO2 flux TIG welding process with traditional TIG welding processes in terms of penetration depth, weld microstructure, mechanical properties, and overall process duration. Through this comprehensive comparison, the research aims to determine the potential benefits and improvements offered by nano TiO2 flux in TIG welding applications.
3.1. Experimental Setup
3.2. Application of TiO2 Flux on SA516 70 Gr. Alloy
3.3. Welding Trials
3.4. Design Matrix Based on Central Composite Design
4. Optimization of Weld Parameters Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
4.1. TIG Welding of SA516 70 Gd. Carbon Steel
4.2. Mechanical Testing and Microstructural Analysis of Weldment
5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Effect of Weld Parameters and Flux on the Penetration Depth
5.2. Metallurgical Analysis of A-TIG and TIG Weldments
5.3. Tensile Test Results of A-TIG and TIG Weldments
5.4. Impact Test Results of A-TIG and TIG Weldments
5.5. Bend Test Results of A-TIG and TIG Weldments
5.6. Hardness Test Results of A-TIG and TIG Weldments
5.7. A-TIG Welding: A Sustainable Solution for Improved Productivity in Welding
5.8. Theoretical and Practical Implications
- Advancing the Knowledge of Nano Flux in Welding: The integration of nano TiO2 flux gives substantial insight into its influence on welding characteristics, including penetration depth, microstructure, and mechanical properties. The new application technique of nano flux opens up new avenues for theoretical exploration in this direction to ensure better weld quality and industrial efficiency.
- Refinement of Welding Parameter Optimization Models: This study will contribute to the development of more robust theoretical models that use RSM to optimize the critical welding parameters, such as arc length, welding current, and travel speed. These refined models offer enhanced understanding of how welding parameters affect the penetration depth and mechanical qualities, advancing the theoretical frameworks for welding optimization.
- Insights into Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior: The study gives in-depth theoretical insight into the development of specific microstructures, including acicular ferrite, Widmanstätten ferrite, and bainite in A-TIG weldments. This understanding clearly explains how the changes in microstructure give rise to changes in the most important mechanical properties, such as strength, ductility, and toughness, thus strengthening the metallurgical base of welding science.
- Sustainability and Efficiency in Welding: The theoretical frameworks emanating from this study depict the potential of nano TiO2 flux to enhance sustainability in welding. Showing that fewer welding passes are required for full penetration and, consequently, less processing time, this study provides support for adopting more energy-efficient and resource-conscious welding practices that are in line with global sustainability goals.
- Increased Welding Productivity: From a practical standpoint, the use of nano TiO2 flux increases productivity because it reduces the number of welding passes required to complete the task, thus reducing the overall process time by 29%. This clearly gives an edge to those industries that involve high-volume manufacturing since it tends to bring down the overall time and production cost.
- Improved Weld Penetration and Quality: By attaining full penetration in a single weld pass, the research work in this paper takes into account the main difficulties in welding thick materials. The results show an improvement in joint quality and a reduction in supplementary passes, while at the same time, defects in the HAZ are decreased.
- Improved Mechanical Properties: A-TIG welding with nano TiO2 flux gives mechanical benefits of increased tensile strength, ductility, and hardness. A-TIG welds have a tensile strength of 520 MPa, while only 470 MPa was obtained using the traditional TIG method. All the enhanced properties make the A-TIG welding process very attractive in applications requiring supreme mechanical performances.
- Cost Efficiency and Resource Utilization: The reduced welding time achieved with A-TIG translates into large cost savings and improved resource efficiency. Industries can achieve better productivity without compromising weld quality by lowering operational expenses through an increase in manufacturing throughput.
- Sustainable Industrial Applications: The adoption of nano TiO2 flux as a cost-effective alternative to conventional TIG welding offers huge practical benefits to industries relying on SA516 Grade 70 steel, including power generation, pressure vessel fabrication, and structural engineering. Furthermore, the reduction in energy consumption and resource efficiency obtained with fewer welding passes contributes to sustainable manufacturing practices and helps promote environmentally responsible industrial operations.
6. Conclusions
- From the ANOVA, out of the three input parameters, the travel speed has the most influence on depth of penetration, followed by welding current and arc length.
- A full penetration of 6 mm was attained in a single weld pass during TIG welding of SA516 70 Gd. alloy with nano TiO2 flux for a travel speed of 80 mm/min, welding current of 220 A, and arc length of 4 mm, whereas three weld passes were necessary to obtain the same penetration without the flux under the identical process parameters.
- The base metal SA516 70 Gd. alloy comprises a combination of pearlite and ferrite. In A-TIG weldments, the fusion zone predominantly comprises acicular ferrite, Widmanstätten ferrite, and minor quantities of Bainite and Martensite, whereas the CGHAZ consists of bainite and grain boundary ferrite, and the FGHAZ comprises fine-grained pearlite and ferrite.
- The TIG weldment’s fusion zone comprises Martensite and Widmanstätten ferrite, whereas the CGHAZ is distinguished by coarse-grained ferrite, Bainite, and Martensite, and the FGHAZ exhibits a refined blend of fine Pearlite and Ferrite.
- In comparison to the base metal (480 MPa) and TIG-welded (470 MPa) specimens, the A-TIG-welded specimen demonstrated enhanced ductility and better tensile strength (520 MPa). The TIG weld’s martensitic fusion zone causes decreased ductility and toughness, whereas the acicular ferrite microstructure of the A-TIG weld enhances toughness and tensile characteristics.
- The base metal demonstrated an impact toughness of 128 J, but the TIG and A-TIG weldments showed a lower toughness of 68 J. While the coarse microstructures and martensite in the welds led to poorer toughness and increased brittleness, the base metal’s ferrite-pearlite microstructure provided a better balance of strength and ductility.
- The hardness profiles of the A-TIG and TIG weldments for SA516 Grade 70 carbon steel indicated that the A-TIG weld exhibited marginally greater hardness in the fusion zone (214 HV) than the TIG weld (209 HV). Hardness reduced towards the base metal due to the presence of acicular ferrite in the fusion zone, coarse Bainite in the heat-affected zone, and softer ferrite and Pearlite in the base metal and fine-grained heat-affected zone, which enhanced ductility.
- The three-point bend test, conducted as per the ASTM E190 standard, evaluated the ductility and integrity of A-TIG and TIG weldments. All four A-TIG specimens passed the bend test showing no discontinuity after a 180° face bend. Both TIG-welded specimens also passed the test without defects. The results, meeting ASME Section IX:2023 criteria, confirm A-TIG welding as a qualified process for fabricating SA516 Grade 70 pressure vessel material.
- The A-TIG welding process requires 29% less time than TIG welding to join a 6 mm plate from one side.
Future Scope of the Study
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
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Theme | Source | Relevance to Research Questions | Methodology | Contribution and Insight | Identified Gaps |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Enhancement of Weld Penetration and Microstructural Properties Using Nano TiO2 Flux in A-TIG Welding | Patel et al. [1], Niagaj [2], Paul et al. [3], Balos et al. [33], Balos et al. [36], Tseng et al. [39]. | Addresses RQ 01 through nanoparticle flux impacts on weld penetration. | Experimental study | TiO2-enhanced A-TIG welding improves weld penetration, microstructure, and mechanical properties compared to conventional TIG welding. Marangoni convection enhances penetration depth. | Does not explore long-term performance in pressure vessel applications. Limited large-scale industrial applications. |
Optimization of A-TIG Welding Parameters (Arc Length, Current, Travel Speed) for Industrial Applications | Vora et al. [19], Hall [12], Tathgir et al. [14,15], Kurtulmus [16], Taraphdar et al. [10] | Supports RQ 02 by analyzing critical factors related to weld penetration and optimization of parameters. | Response Surface Methodology (RSM), Experimental study | Identifies optimal welding parameters for maximizing penetration and efficiency. Confirms that welding speed significantly impacts | Limited real-world industrial validation. Does not account for TiO2 activation effects. |
Mechanical Performance and Structural Integrity of A-TIG Welds for Pressure Vessel Applications | Arivazhagan et al. [21], Dhandha et al. [22], Saha et al. [23], Amanie et al. [13], Shakya et al. [7], Barros et al. [8]. | RQ 03 by linking improvements to pressure vessel properties. | Metallurgical and mechanical property study. | Demonstrates improved hardness, toughness, and integrity of A-TIG welds, making them suitable for pressure vessel applications. Examines welding speed and current influence on SA516 Grade 70 steel. | Lacks direct comparison between A-TIG and conventional TIG for pressure vessel applications. Sustainability impact not thoroughly assessed. |
Defects, Penetration Behavior, and Sustainability Aspects of A-TIG Welding | Mendez et al. [41], Saha et al. [23], Acharya et al. [24] | Examines flux effects on weld penetration and microstructure for RQ 01, RQ 03 by examining mechanical durability and sustainability. | Experimental and numerical study. | Examines penetration defects in high-current welding. Demonstrates that A-TIG reduces welding time and energy consumption while maintaining high strength. | Does not specifically cover TiO2 flux effects. Sustainability impact not thoroughly assessed. |
C | Mn | S | P | Si | Cr | Ni | Cu | Mo | V | Fe |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.178 | 0.982 | 0.014 | 0.021 | 0.191 | 0.014 | 0.001 | 0.007 | 0.001 | 0.001 | Balance |
Levels | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Notation | Min | Mid | Max | |
Arc Length (mm) | A | 2 | 3 | 4 |
Weld Current (A) | C | 180 | 200 | 220 |
Travel Speed (mm/min) | T | 80 | 100 | 120 |
Standard Order | RunOrder | Arc Length (mm) | Welding Current (A) | Travel Speed (mm/min) | Bead Depth (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
15 | 1 | 3 | 180 | 100 | 3.56 |
16 | 2 | 3 | 220 | 100 | 4.00 |
14 | 3 | 4 | 200 | 100 | 3.52 |
18 | 4 | 3 | 200 | 120 | 3.32 |
19 | 5 | 3 | 200 | 100 | 4.30 |
13 | 6 | 2 | 200 | 100 | 4.56 |
17 | 7 | 3 | 200 | 80 | 5.28 |
20 | 8 | 3 | 200 | 100 | 4.30 |
11 | 9 | 3 | 200 | 100 | 4.30 |
10 | 10 | 4 | 220 | 120 | 3.88 |
12 | 11 | 3 | 200 | 100 | 4.30 |
8 | 12 | 2 | 220 | 80 | 4.34 |
7 | 13 | 4 | 180 | 80 | 4.36 |
9 | 14 | 2 | 180 | 120 | 3.92 |
2 | 15 | 4 | 220 | 80 | 6.10 |
3 | 16 | 4 | 180 | 120 | 2.40 |
1 | 17 | 2 | 180 | 80 | 5.00 |
5 | 18 | 3 | 200 | 100 | 4.30 |
4 | 19 | 2 | 220 | 120 | 4.50 |
6 | 20 | 3 | 200 | 100 | 4.30 |
Source | DF | Adj SS | Adj MS | F-Value | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model | 10 | 10.1594 | 1.01594 | 13.56 | 0.000 |
Blocks | 2 | 0.3649 | 0.18244 | 2.43 | 0.143 |
Linear | 3 | 6.6904 | 2.23012 | 29.76 | 0.000 |
Arc Length | 1 | 0.4244 | 0.42436 | 5.66 | 0.041 |
Welding Current | 1 | 1.2816 | 1.28164 | 17.10 | 0.003 |
Travel Speed | 1 | 4.9844 | 4.98436 | 66.52 | 0.000 |
Square | 2 | 0.2734 | 0.13668 | 1.82 | 0.216 |
Two-Way Interaction | 3 | 2.8097 | 0.93658 | 12.50 | 0.001 |
Arc Length × Welding Current | 1 | 1.3612 | 1.36125 | 18.17 | 0.002 |
Arc Length × Travel Speed | 1 | 1.3285 | 1.32845 | 17.73 | 0.002 |
Welding Current × Travel Speed | 1 | 0.1200 | 0.12005 | 1.60 | 0.237 |
Error | 9 | 0.6744 | 0.07493 | ||
Lack-of-Fit | 6 | 0.6744 | 0.11240 | * | * |
Pure Error | 3 | 0.0000 | 0.00000 | ||
Total | 19 | 10.8338 | |||
0.9370 | |||||
Adjusted | 0.8686 |
Parameter | Value/Specification |
---|---|
Welding Current (I) | 220 A |
Arc Length | 4 mm |
Travel Speed (TS) | 80 mm/min (1.33 mm/s) |
Shielding Gas | Argon (10 L/min) |
Electrode Type | 2% Thoriated Tungsten (3 mm) |
Electrode Polarity | DCEN (Direct Current Electrode Negative) |
Filler Material | ER70S-6 (1.2 mm diameter) (for GTAW) |
Flux Composition | TiO2 nano-flux |
Flux Thickness | 0.15 mm (applied using blade-coating method) |
Joint Configuration | SinglePatel-pass square butt weld (zero root gap) |
Sl. No. | Sample | Position | Thickness (mm) | Discontinuity | Result | Image |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | A-TIG | Face | 5 | No | Acceptable | |
2 | A-TIG | Face | 6 | No | Acceptable | |
3 | TIG | Face | 6 | No | Acceptable | |
4 | A-TIG | Root | 5 | No | Acceptable | |
5 | TIG | Root | 6 | No | Acceptable | |
6 | A-TIG | Root | 6 | No | Acceptable |
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Narayanan, R.; Rameshkumar, K.; Sumesh, A.; Shankar, B.; Thekkuden, D.T. Effect of Nano TiO2 Flux on Depth of Penetration and Mechanical Properties of TIG-Welded SA516 Grade 70 Steel Joints—An Experimental Investigation. Metals 2025, 15, 399. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15040399
Narayanan R, Rameshkumar K, Sumesh A, Shankar B, Thekkuden DT. Effect of Nano TiO2 Flux on Depth of Penetration and Mechanical Properties of TIG-Welded SA516 Grade 70 Steel Joints—An Experimental Investigation. Metals. 2025; 15(4):399. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15040399
Chicago/Turabian StyleNarayanan, Rakesh, Krishnaswamy Rameshkumar, Arangot Sumesh, Balakrishnan Shankar, and Dinu Thomas Thekkuden. 2025. "Effect of Nano TiO2 Flux on Depth of Penetration and Mechanical Properties of TIG-Welded SA516 Grade 70 Steel Joints—An Experimental Investigation" Metals 15, no. 4: 399. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15040399
APA StyleNarayanan, R., Rameshkumar, K., Sumesh, A., Shankar, B., & Thekkuden, D. T. (2025). Effect of Nano TiO2 Flux on Depth of Penetration and Mechanical Properties of TIG-Welded SA516 Grade 70 Steel Joints—An Experimental Investigation. Metals, 15(4), 399. https://doi.org/10.3390/met15040399