As one of the most prevalent manufacturing operations with an enormous economic impact, metal cutting has always been in the research spotlight. An in-depth physical understanding of the metal cutting process is an essential element of tool development and optimized production. With the complication of various phenomena involved in such a process, numerical simulation of metal cutting becomes an invaluable approach to develop this understanding. Nevertheless, the complex interplay between thermal and mechanical effects in metal cutting poses multiple challenges to its experimental and numerical investigation.
1.1. General Challenges in Metal Cutting Investigation
For the production of modern high-performance products in important industry sectors like automotive, aerospace and energy, components from different types of materials need to be provided in a sufficient quality. Two important groups of materials studied in this paper are medium carbon steels like AISI 1045, which can be used for a wide range of components, and titanium alloys like Ti6Al4V, which is mainly used in highly loaded lightweight applications. Machining of titanium alloys like Ti6Al4V provides two major challenges: process-vibrations which are caused by the characteristic chip segmentation [
1] and high temperatures on rake face and flank face resulting in extensive tool wear [
2]. To achieve a further development of tools and processes to reduce the tool wear in machining, numerical models are important resources. The state of the art already allows a good prediction of complex chip shapes [
3] and the mechanical loads and their impact on tool wear [
4]. However, the models are not yet qualified to achieve valid wear predictions over a broad parameter field. This applies not only to difficult-to-machine materials such as Ti6Al4V, but also to less demanding materials such as AISI 1045 [
5]. Two of the challenges in valid wear prediction are the modeling of friction and the associated prediction of the temperature distribution in the tool. This paper deals with these two aspects.
The thermal load in the chip formation zone has a significant influence on the productivity of machining processes and the quality of the manufactured products. The cutting values, especially with regard to the cutting speed, are limited by the fact that the tool wear development is significantly determined by the temperature in the contact zone. On the part of the workpiece, the surface integrity is determined by the temperatures occurring during the process and their exposure times. Accordingly, for a digital design of tools and processes using chip formation models, it is necessary for the simulation systems used to reliably predict the temperatures occurring in the chip formation zone. Numerical methods are basically well suited for this purpose. However, as pointed out by Melkote et al. [
6], the prediction of the tool temperature has particularly been a great challenge up to now, since this is significantly determined by the friction, which is difficult to model and necessitates a long engagement duration modeling to reach a stationary state.
Friction is the result of a complex interaction of different mechanisms, the analysis of which requires consideration at different scale levels, as Vakis et al. [
7] explain in their keynote paper. In particular, Arrazola et al. [
8] emphasized that the characterization and modeling of the friction mechanisms in machining remains a key challenge due to the severe conditions in the chip formation zone (which are characterized by high contact pressures, temperatures, and relative velocities) and the poor accessibility of the effective zone for metrological investigations. In this context, Zemzemi et al. [
9] developed a pin-on-bar tribometer which allows the measurement of the friction coefficient and the heat flux in the contact zone under conditions close to cutting with regard to the contact pressure and the temperature. With the help of the described experiment, the relative speed could be identified as the main influencing parameter on the coefficient of friction for the contact of steel material and cemented carbide. Further development of this setup was carried out by Rech et al. [
10]. They used a tribometer device to investigate the influence of the relative speed on the friction coefficient for different material pairings and intermediate mediums. For all combinations investigated, the coefficient of friction decreased with increasing relative speed but depending on different boundary conditions. A plethora of empirical models, which are all based on a power function, have already described this behavior. In a more recent investigation, Meier et al. [
11] conducted an in-process measurement of the friction coefficient in cutting titanium alloys and showed that the measured data is significantly affected by the tribometer setup. They proposed that choosing the most appropriate tribometer leads to values that are most representative of the situation in metal cutting.
Concerning the friction characterization, Puls et al. [
12] proposed another advancement by developing a new experiment which allows the characterization of the friction stress and the coefficient of friction depending on the relative speed and the temperature under cutting conditions on a lathe with orthogonal tool engagement. Beside the boundary conditions concerning contact pressure, temperature and relative speed, the method has the main advantage compared to other tribometers for machining that the contact area can reliably be calculated due to a flat contact surface. In a second version of their experiment, Puls et al. [
13] adopted the concept on a machine with a translational relative motion, which allows characterization in an open tribometer and, therefore, provides results which are more transferable to the conditions in the chip formation zone. Using experimental investigations and finite element simulations, Peng et al. [
14] developed complex models for different materials of the coefficient of friction for chip formation simulations. This model maps the relative speed, the temperature, and the contact pressure in the secondary shear zone as influencing variables. Zanger et al. [
15] investigated the influence of models for the coefficient of friction with different influencing variables. For predicting the temperatures in the chip formation zone with a finite element chip formation simulation, a friction coefficient depending on the relative speed and the normal force showed the best agreement with experimentally determined results.
For further development of the chip formation models regarding the prediction quality of the temperature distribution, the focus of the investigation is on the experiments which help to validate the models in addition to the aspects relating to the modelling itself. The temperature of the machined workpiece surface very close behind the contact to the flank face can be measured with a good precision. Therefore, the thermal impact of cutting on the workpiece surface zone can be investigated, and it is also possible to validate Finite Element chip formation simulations with respect to the workpiece temperature distribution. For example, Tapetado et al. [
16] used a two-color fibre pyrometer and guided the fibre through the tool in order to measure the workpiece temperature close to the active zone. However, as Davies et al. [
17] described in their related keynote paper, the key challenge is to measure the highly inaccessible contact temperatures in the secondary shear zone.
In the last two decades, some new approaches to overcome this constraint of accessibility have been developed. Al Huda et al. [
18] measured the temperature of the contact side of the chip with a two-color pyrometer by guiding the pyrometer-fibre through a borehole in the tool. In a similar setup, Müller et al. [
19] used a self developed two-color pyrometer which was adopted to the use in metal-cutting processes. The challenge in using this method is to position the bore for the pyrometer fibre exactly in such a way that it is above the contact zone in order to avoid blocking it with softened material of the chip and, at the same time, to move away as little as possible from the contact zone so that cooling of the chip in front of the measured point can be prevented as much as possible. For the measurement of flank face temperatures, different methods have been developed for different manufacturing processes. Dörr et al. [
20] used a pyrometer to measure the flank face temperature when drilling a AISI 1045-steel. To that end, they drilled through a disk of material and positioned the pyrometer orthogonal to the surface of tool exit. With this method, they were able to identify the influence of different coatings on the temperature of the flank face at the end of the cut. Oezkaya et al. [
21] used a similar approach when drilling Inconel 718 to analyze the influence of the cutting values on the temperature distribution on the flank face at different positions along the tool radius. Nishimoto et al. [
22] used a partly interrupted workpiece to measure the flank face temperature in internal turning. Based on a sealed design, they could also use the system when applying a cutting fluid to the chip formation zone. In that way, the effect of a cooling and lubricating fluid on the temperature of the flank face could be investigated. The most challenging area for temperature measurements in the chip formation zone, while being the most relevant for tool and coating development, is the rake face. Due to the restricted accessibility, and the fact that the chip is moving along the rake face even in an orthogonal cutting case, the measurement of rake face temperatures in a reliable way has not been possible for a long time.
For many decades, the common way to access the temperatures on the rake face was to bring a thermocouple through a blind hole in the tool close to the rake face, so Kus et al. [
23] did for hard turning of AISI 4140 to collect validation data for a finite element simulation. These methods have been used and highly developed by many researchers and are even applicable for rotating tools, as chosen by Le Coz et al. [
24]. The main disadvantage of the method is that the contact zone is not reached and the spatial temperature gradients in the subsurface edge zone under the rake face are very large. Consequently, further developments have led to the applicant of thermocouples in tool coatings directly to the rake face. Basti et al. [
25] invented built-in thin film thermocouple sensors which can be applied to cutting inserts for turning and adopted them to polycrystalline cubic boron nitride tools, which where used for the cutting of a titanium alloy. Although the processes for applying the coatings, such as those used by Li et al. [
26], are constantly being further developed so that the coating process becomes more efficient and the coatings more wear-resistant, this technique remains very complex. In addition, only certain coating systems can be used and an influence on the thermal properties of the tool cannot be prevented. In order to enable a measurement of the temperatures on the lateral surface of the tool, Augspurger et al. [
27] used a thermographic camera. Although this strategy prevents the measurement method from influencing the temperature distribution and enables the measurement of the immediate surface temperatures, it is not possible to measure the inaccessible contact temperatures, which are much higher, like Arrazola et al. [
28] could show with a new experimental setup. For this purpose, the authors clamped a workpiece with slots in the spindle of a milling machine while the tool was stationary fixed at the machine table and filmed with a thermography camera. When one of the slots reached the tool the chip formation was interrupted and the rake face became visible for a short period of time. A problem occurring during this investigation was that the chip needed to be evacuated from the rake face before an access with the camera was possible. During this time, the rake face temperature can already change. Recently, Saelzer et al. [
29] developed a new method for rake face temperature measurement utilizing a two-color fibre pyrometer in orthogonal cutting by preparing the workpiece with slots. This useful approach bears only a partly interruption of the chip formation while the chip flow remains intact so that the workpiece material directly leaves the contact zone and an immediate measurement on the rake face is possible. Due to the small fibre diameter, a focused spot close to the cutting edge was also realised. This allows the measurement of the rake face temperature on a new level of accuracy, providing a new validation basis for numerical simulation of metal cutting.
1.2. Methodological Challenges in Metal Cutting Simulation
Generally speaking, mesh-based and particle-based techniques are the two main categories of numerical methods used for metal cutting simulations. According to an abundance of published works, the tool-of-choice in each category is the well-known Finite Element Method (FEM) and Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH), respectively. In this context, FEM is more commonly used than SPH and has been in the vanguard of metal cutting models over the past few decades. This success is closely related to the ubiquity of FEM-based commercial packages in the academy and industry, but also because the numerical algorithms in FEM developments have reached maturity. In particular, the number and quality of published works based on a Lagrangian formulation of FEM are remarkable. The main technical disadvantage of such models, however, lies in the mesh re-computation, which is a cumbersome procedure required for the solution stability and mesh distortion issues. In other words, the main issue with the application of (Lagrangian) FEM solvers to cutting problems is this re-meshing procedure that brings numerical inaccuracy while entailing high computational costs. A good overview of some notable accounts in the FEM modeling of machining processes can be found in [
8]. More recently, Childs et al. [
30] applied a thermo-elasto-plastic Lagrangian FEM code to Ti6Al4V chip formation simulation using a modified failure model and claimed satisfactory agreement between the model and experiments. They investigated the chip geometry, process forces and tool temperatures over a wide range of cutting speed ranging from 1 to 100 m/min. However, validation of chip temperatures is lacking in their work.
As a relatively younger approach than FEM, SPH has received much attention from the cutting simulation community due to its unique capabilities in handling large deformation and material separation problems. In an early effort, Limido et al. [
31] developed an
LS-DYNA SPH model of high-speed cutting and compared the predicted cutting forces and chip morphology against the experimental data. This pioneering work revealed the great potentials of SPH in more advanced cutting simulations; nevertheless, it lacks a full thermomechanical coupling by ignoring to solve the heat equation. Ruttimann et al. [
32] published the first SPH work, in which a 3D cutting test was verified experimentally. They demonstrated that the computational time of an SPH single-grain model is only a fraction of what FEM needs for a comparable result. Madaj and Piŝka [
33] simulated the orthogonal cutting of an aluminum alloy and validated the chip shapes, von Mises stress, plastic strains, strain rates, and cutting forces obtained from SPH with other published results. They concluded that the size of SPH particles plays a key role in resolving segmented chip shapes. In order to address the high computational cost of SPH cutting simulations, Spreng et al. [
34] developed the first adaptive framework for meshfree metal cutting problems and showcased their development in a 2D orthogonal test. Afrasiabi et al. [
35] carried out a more detailed study on the runtime optimization of SPH cutting simulations and by focusing on the interplay between the discretization effects and the accuracy of Ti6Al4V chip serration. They published the first open-source multi-resolution SPH code for metal cutting, realizing that more than 50–70% of the SPH calculation time can be saved via dynamic particle refinement. Niu et al. [
36] addressed another deficiency of SPH regarding its kernel inconsistency. They corrected the density approximation by a more accurate SPH kernel function and showed that chip formation using an improved kernel is more accurate.
It would not be until only a few years ago that the SPH cutting models could take a major leap forward in their proficiency. Roethlin et al. [
37] accelerated the runtime of SPH cutting simulations dramatically via GPU parallel computing. As a result of very short evaluation cycles, the authors performed several parameter studies on the effects of cutting parameters and displayed ultra-fine discretization in SPH cutting simulations. These authors extended their code in [
38] to a 3D single-grain grinding experiment, where the presented SPH results are believed to be the most high-resolution 3D metal cutting simulation to date. Within a numerical-experimental framework, Afrasiabi et al. [
39] focused on the influence of friction modeling on the accuracy of force prediction and proposed the first temperature-dependent friction model for SPH metal cutting through an inverse identification method. They found that employing an enhanced friction coefficient can reduce the usual inaccuracy of passive force prediction significantly.
While all these publications have made crucial steps in the maturity of SPH metal cutting models, friction and material parameters in almost all of them are assumed from other work. More importantly, none of these papers provides experimental validation of thermal loads. Although Afrasiabi et al. [
40] have recently taken the first step to fill this gap, there are some issues in their results that still need to be addressed. Firstly, the experimental validation of thermal loads was adapted from other work and reported only for the rake face temperature. Secondly, the simulation results presented in [
40] are low resolution (as the SPH runtime is not accelerated) and taken only after a cut distance of 0.3 mm, which seems insufficient to establish a steady-state temperature distribution. The very recent publication of [
41] addresses these issues and presents a complete thermal model for metal cutting simulation.