Skills Ecosystem and the Role of School Management for Sustainable Development of Dual Education

Abstract

The article presents an analysis of the mechanisms used by a vocational high school in Bulgaria to develop dual training and implement it sustainably. It focuses on the school management’s leadership role in the network of different stakeholders, demonstrating the importance of this aspect in the entire process of developing dual education. Apart from the case analysis of the Bulgarian vocational high school’s successful implementation of dual learning, the research strategy includes examining regulatory documents, evaluation reports and publications in media and by companies, as well as analyzing the attitudes among key stakeholders. An overview of the challenges facing dual education in Bulgaria is also provided. Based on the case study findings, the factors supporting the implementation and sustainability of the dual system have been identified. We conclude that the long-term development of the dual education model depends on the understanding that the formation of professional skills is a dynamic process, requiring attention to the needs of the local environment, adaptability to current changes and active participation by all stakeholders. The role of school leadership—with regard to both its motivation and activity—has proven to be essential, and therefore it should not be overlooked when creating state incentives to support dual training.

1. Introduction

It is widely accepted that dual education has had an overall positive effect on the vocational educational training (VET) system; it is improving its public image by providing a direct link to the labor market and encouraging more successful professional realization for students [1,2,3]. Dual education means training through work—it is a specific form of vocational training organized on the basis of a partnership between employers and a high school. The dual training system has been accepted globally as one of the good options for overcoming skills and labor market mismatches [4,5,6,7]. While the European Union promotes the creation of dual training in member states, its implementation has been very uneven due to differences in the basic organizational structures and demographic, technological and institutional characteristics of individual countries, all of which affect the incentives for companies to engage in such training [8].

While this system contributes greatly to overcoming mismatches between labor market supply and demand, it is not yet well established nor widespread in Bulgarian vocational schools. A dual education system was introduced in the country in 2015, the main goal being to ensure the formation of professional skills needed by employers. The Preschool and School Education Act introduced the term “work-based learning (dual education system)” (Art. 106, para. 1) [9]. The program lasts five years and begins after grade seven. For the first three years (grades 8–10), students receive theoretical and practical instruction at the school. In the second stage, in grade 11, they attend classes three days a week, while on the other two days, they intern in a real work environment at a partner enterprise under the guidance of mentors. In grade 12, they spend two days at school and three days at a company. Interns receive a salary and graduate with real work experience.

Based on the experience of Switzerland, Germany and Austria, it is expected that learners will gain quality theoretical and practical training, transversal skills for their personal and professional improvement, the possibility of securing a job after graduation and career guidance on choosing to continue their education. Over the last ten years, the Bulgarian state has aimed to develop dual education through creating an appropriate regulatory framework1 and financial support. The dual education system in Bulgaria was supported by the DOMINO project—“Dual Education for the Modern Needs & Requirements of Society” (2015–2019). It was funded by the Swiss Confederation under the Bulgarian–Swiss Cooperation Program and implemented jointly with the Ministry of Education and Science, the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy and the Ministry of Economy. The pilot project provided initial funding for the first dual classes and developed new curricula and programs, created a practical guide for dual education and trained teachers and mentors.

The organization of a dual education system has aimed: to combine theoretical and practical training in a real work environment, facilitating access to VET for persons over 16 years of age, including early leavers or school dropouts; to create a permanent and responsive link between vocational education and business; and to limit youth unemployment by providing practical skills and opportunities for a smooth transition between school and the workplace [10]. However, the successful introduction of this type of training can be quite uncertain and is often affected by the termination of project funding for activities [11]. This necessitates a more in-depth study of the aspects allowing the dual system to become a sustainable form of training in vocational schools.

Although the development of the dual form of training has been an important focus of policies aimed at improving vocational education in Bulgaria, academic literature on this issue is still relatively scarce. Bulgarian research in the field of dual training focuses on the implementation of policies in the context of attracting employers and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) [12], the attractiveness of dual education for students [13] and their professional realization [14,15,16]. However, it has hardly touched on the importance of how vocational high schools are managed and the leadership’s role in attracting resources and partners in the process of implementing the dual system. We argue that this is an important factor that impacts the possibilities for dual training to take place sustainably and that a more in-depth study of management approaches is needed, placed in the broader context of the problems and challenges facing the implementation of the dual training system in Bulgaria.

Guided by this statement, the article poses the following research questions:

• What are the problems and challenges facing the dual system in Bulgaria?
• How are these challenges being overcome by school leadership in one VET school?
• What conclusions can be drawn to make the country’s dual system more sustainable?

Our case study of a VET school in a provincial Bulgarian town is a good example of successful dual education integration and vocational education, meeting its aims regarding the link between school and the labor market, as well as engagement and effective cooperation among stakeholders. This exemplary case is of interest because it demonstrates the approaches and solutions implemented by school management to overcome the limitations of the country’s dual system, such as a lack of regular funding, relatively weak public interest, insufficient effectiveness and low connectivity between policies and long-term employer commitments [17,18,19,20]. The school highlights several key factors that have had a positive impact on efforts to provide quality education for students and prepare workers who are ready to meet the needs of the local labor market. Our research goal, thus set, requires considering the problem through the lens of a system whose effective functioning depends on the quality participation of all stakeholders, including highly motivated school staff and leadership. The problems facing effective and lasting partnerships in dual training are discussed in the long-term, in a broader context and in more developed dual systems [21,22,23]. Effective partnerships are relatively rare and therefore serve as an example, highlighting the need to develop a mutual understanding that balances the different interests of stakeholders [23]. The scientific literature emphasizes the need for commitment from representatives of educational institutions in the functioning of stable and long-term partnerships, while at the same time, attention is drawn to the common disregard for the expertise and experience of school management when making educational policies [21,24,25]

The article contributes to a better understanding of the difficulties that emerge in interactions among stakeholders and highlights the elements necessary for the successful implementation and sustainable application of dual training in the vocational education system in Bulgaria. Although only one school is examined, the lessons learned from this case study can serve as a guide for other schools, even in other countries with a similar context to the Bulgarian one. Our research identifies useful approaches and solutions for high school management to build stable partnerships with all stakeholders in dual education programs. The study not only enriches the existing research with a new cultural context but also identifies key factors that can inform the development of effective educational policies by highlighting the role of school management in their implementation.

2. Theoretical Considerations

This study integrates (1) the skills ecosystem approach, which explains systemic interconnectedness and contextual factors, and (2) the educational leadership approach, which focuses on the actions, capacity and adaptability of leaders to analyze how the management of a dual education school can effectively create and maintain partnerships with key stakeholders. This integration provides an analytical framework that enables us to view school leadership as a mediation process within an ecosystem of interests, resources and rules, rather than just a management function.

Research on skills ecosystems [26,27,28,29] shows that successful vocational training systems emerge where institutions develop local capacities for collective action. They underline the significance of “intermediary structures”—organizations or leaders who facilitate cooperation and information sharing among actors with disparate interests and rationalities. Skills development is viewed as the consequence of interactions between numerous actors—educational institutions, employers, government structures, and social partners—who collaborate to shape local patterns of learning and employment.

Based on the idea of vocational training as an ecosystem for building skills, we define the main participants in it as regulatory institutions (Ministry of Education and Science, Ministry of Labor and Social Policy, Ministry of Economy, National Agency for Vocational Education and Training, Regional Education Departments), educational institutions (schools and universities), employers, parents and students. By focusing on the interaction between different actors and factors, the skills ecosystem approach helps us to explore the unique challenges that specific schools face, e.g., how the presence of a particular industry in the region where VET schools are located influences the (un)successful implementation of dual education. Researchers applying this approach emphasize the need for skills development and training policies to be individually focused on the local context [28]. The effective functioning of vocational education and dual training in particular is one of the opportunities for creating personnel for the local economy, filling labor gaps and thus strengthening the local economy overall and improving socio-economic conditions. On the other hand, the influence of local industry and business on the development of such training must be taken into account.

The educational leadership literature emphasizes the ability of leaders to shape vision, build capacity and sustain organizational learning [30,31]. Particularly relevant to the dual system is the concept of transformational and adaptive leadership, where leaders drive change by building a culture of collaboration and real-time learning [32,33]. Combining this concept with the ecosystem approach allows us to think of leadership not simply as a management function but as a connecting link between systems: school, business and politics. Here, the role of the leader is essential, acting as a mediator who creates new institutional connections and facilitates the exchange of knowledge, trust and resources [34,35]. In this context, school leadership can be seen as a “boundary spanner”—an actor who overcomes organizational, sectoral and cultural boundaries to create working connections between the school and the labor market [36,37,38]. Thus, the leader does not simply implement policies, but actively connects incompatible systems through trust, communication and coordination.

At the same time, the leadership approach in education emphasizes the role of management as a strategic mediator between vision and practice. Research [31,37] highlights that effective leaders articulate a vision and manage the learning process, and they also develop organizational capacity by promoting collaboration, professional development and systematic learning. Applying these ideas in the context of dual education means that school management does not simply administer partnerships; it actively sets up the conditions for their sustainable functioning through investments in the competence of teachers, the appointment of partnership coordinators (teacher-methodologist)2 and the institutionalization of joint practices for external communication, evaluation and adaptation.

Combining the two approaches allows leadership to be viewed as an ecosystem mediation mechanism. This includes three interrelated dimensions: (1) vision and framing—leaders articulate a common goal between the school and enterprises, translating political requirements into a local context; (2) brokerage—they build trust and coordination between different institutions, which is a prerequisite for more effective cooperation and more effective learning outcomes; (3) capacity building—strengthening organizational structures (for example, through training of trainers and mentors) to maintain the sustainability of partnerships.

The above theoretical framework justifies the choice of a single-case study (exemplary case), in which school leadership is seen as a “boundary spanner” overcoming widespread systemic barriers. Although the importance of employers and mentors in enterprises, who contribute to the skills ecosystem as a result of transcending the boundaries between different systems, is no less important, we focus on the school management and staff (including teacher-methodologists) precisely because of the important role that the principal has played in this particular case. Our approach is instrumental and revelatory [39] and provides an opportunity to track the processes and mechanisms resulting in the sustainability of the dual training program in this school and its integration into the local ecosystem.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Research Design and Data Collection

The presented text is part of a broader study of the skills system, carried out within the framework of an international project3 and examining how skills systems should develop to help people make transitions in the labor market and thus reduce the level of skills mismatch. In this analysis, we use information obtained through two main methods: desk research and semi-structured interviews. The collection of information took place throughout the project during the implementation of separate research tasks4 (See

Table 1. Data collection.

Stage	Supplementary Dataset (Stage 1)	Exemplary Case (Stage 2)	Supplementary Dataset (Stage 3)
Topic	The effectiveness of skills policies	The role of policy, services and stakeholders in supporting VET systems: innovative practice	Challenges and changes in the demand for VET skills
Period of implementation	November–December 2023	March 2025	May–June 2025
Number of interviews and participants	5 (experts in public administration and from an employers’ organization)	1 (representative of the management of a vocational high school with dual education)	10 (experts in public administration, local authority and trade unions; employers and heads of vocational high schools with dual training)
Main source of the desk research	Academic literature on the scope, adaptability and consistency of strategic documents for skills development; National Strategy for Lifelong Learning 2008–2013; National Strategy for Lifelong Learning 2014–2020; relevant scientific literature and existing research on the topic; policy documents, evaluation reports of implemented policies and measures, strategies and regulations governing the functioning of the skills system in Bulgaria	Relevant scientific literature and existing research on the topic; policy documents, evaluation reports of implemented policies and measures, strategies and regulations governing the functioning of vocational and dual training in Bulgaria; media publications, websites of schools with a dual system, announcements on the websites of the specific school and companies working with the school about vocational education or the dual form of training	Academic literature on the search for new skills; relevant scientific literature and existing research on the topic; policy documents, evaluation reports of implemented policies and measures, strategies and regulations governing the functioning of the skills system in Bulgaria in response to the demand for new skills

).

3.1.1. Conducting Desk Research

Each research task was preceded by an in-depth study of various aspects of the skills system in Bulgaria, of which VET is a part. The literature studied can be divided into three main types:

-

Relevant academic literature and existing research on the topic;

-

Policy documents, evaluation reports of implemented policies and measures, strategies and regulations governing the functioning of the skills system in Bulgaria;

-

Media publications, websites of schools with a dual system and announcements on the websites of specific schools and companies working with these schools about vocational education or the dual form of training.

For the first two types, we studied literature on the development of vocational education published since 2007. For the third type, we studied publications from 2015, when the dual form of education in Bulgaria was introduced. To select an exemplary case, we first conducted a general review of official institutional websites, project websites initiating dual education in Bulgaria, official websites of vocational high schools and employers, evaluation reports and strategies. We discovered the case school representative’s strong motivation to improve the link between economic and educational needs and opportunities in the region. The distinctiveness of the case is manifest in its capacity to exemplify our theoretical and analytical framework, providing close-to-real-life situations and a wealth of information about how given processes and actions take place [40,41]. We focused on the official website of the specific school and on the Internet, using the name of the school, the name of the school’s management, names of teachers working in the dual education program from that school, reviews from students or parents and the names of companies taking part in the program. To improve the validity and reliability of the information collected through this method, the two authors separately screened media publications related to the specific school, as well as headlines from articles on the websites of both the high school and those companies that each researcher considered worthy of inclusion in the study. The two researchers then discussed their lists: most of the names and headlines matched, and it was decided whether or not to use those that appeared only on the list of one author. After conducting a literature search and analysis, questions remained, the answers to which were obtained through an in-depth interview with a representative of the management of the specific school.

The exemplary case has allowed us to fulfill our goal, namely, to reveal the mechanisms used to develop dual training as a sustainable practice contributing to community well-being. The combination of both desk-research and case-study methods enabled us to present a general picture of vocational education in Bulgaria, as well as the functioning processes that lead to sustainability from the perspective of a specific school as an example of good practice. The choice of a specific vocational high school was driven by the “hope to learn something” [42] regarding the successful implementation of dual training.

3.1.2. Semi-Structured Interviews

The semi-structured interviews were conducted in three stages, included different participants, lasted 60 to 90 min, face-to-face or online via Zoom, and used different interview guides that shared a central theme: “building skills in VET”.

The questionnaire in the first stage of the study focused on the development of policies and approaches in the field of skills and included topics like drivers for skills development, main actors in policy implementation, quality assessment, obstacles, policy gaps and recommendations by experts.

The guide used in the second stage aimed at collecting information about the current state of and good practices in the vocational education system, consisting of the following main topics: organization and characteristics of the dual system, participants in its implementation, difficulties faced by the school in implementing dual education, approaches to attract students, mechanisms for maintaining dialog with the authorities and enterprises and career guidance for students in dual education.

In the third stage, the questionnaire explored the challenges of developing up-to-date skills that adequately respond to ongoing changes in the labor market (e.g., the green and digital transitions) and was divided into the following main topics: the VET system corresponding to the green transition, existing demographic and labor market structures and their impact on skills demand and supply, the impact of sociotechnical and cultural changes and the impact of past experiences with major socio-economic changes.

The respondents, predominantly representatives of stakeholders in skills development—public administration experts, employers’ organizations, employers and heads of vocational high schools (16 in total)—were recruited through a purposeful selection of individuals with direct experience and understanding of the phenomenon under study, which allowed for the collection of empirical information relevant to the research topics [43]. All respondents were informed about the aims of the study and signed declarations of voluntary participation. The interviews were duly transcribed, discussed and double-checked. Each of the studies received approval from an ethics committee—the first and third studies from the Ethics Committee at the Bulgarian Sociological Association and the second from the University of Leicester Research Ethics Committee. After the end of the project, anonymized interview summaries will be stored by Zenodo (Version v1)—a free, trustworthy open repository for EU-funded research.

3.2. Data Analysis

The interviews were conducted at different times, with different participants and interview guides, and are not considered part of a fully comparable data set. A supplementary dataset and quotes from these interviews are included in the analysis for the purpose of contextual support, triangulation and validation of the information from the descriptive research on the problems with implementing the dual system in the country and the obstacles facing effective cooperation among stakeholders. Methodological rigor was ensured through adherence to ethical norms for conducting sociological surveys, including people, reflexivity and analytical transparency. Reflexivity and analytical transparency were achieved by maintaining continuous communication between the researchers and following a clear strategy during each stage of the study. First, the research team discussed potential respondents in terms of the research objectives and prepared a list of potential respondents; the questionnaires had common themes, but the researchers emphasized certain questions during the interview stage, depending on the expertise of each respondent. During data collection, we discussed and made a note when the participants reshaped our previous assumptions.

The information obtained from the interviews was analyzed through qualitative content analysis, allowing us to develop an understanding of the meaning behind communications with a concern for intentions, consequences and context [44]. We applied a directed approach, which is one of three approaches used to interpret meaning from the content of textual data [45]. This means that our theoretical framework described above guided the initial coding and analysis. The choice of this approach is in line with the concept of Potter and Levine-Donnerstein [46] for coding and interpretation guided by theory, which increases the validity of data interpretations.

For data analysis, the analytical procedure proposed by Hickey and Kipping [47] was followed. Based on the skills ecosystem approach and the educational leadership approach, we derived two main categories: challenges/problems and solution options, which were divided into subcategories that guided the initial sorting and interpretation of the data. The authors individually read the interview transcripts carefully and coded parts of the texts according to the previously established categories and subcategories; each also noted new categories created inductively. In the next step, together we reviewed the categories that had been derived, then we discussed the differences to arrive at a final framework within which the data were interpreted and presented in the article.

Findings from the main interview were triangulated with information from additional interviews and desk research, which provided contextual depth. The integration of secondary materials enhances credibility, and the contribution of the study lies more in the analytical summary to achieve an understanding of the research problem (factors for sustainability in the implementation of the dual education system) than in representativeness. This approach preserves the integrity of the single-case design while enhancing the credibility of the research through the transparent use of additional material. The credibility of our qualitative research does not stem from the number of interviews but from the richness of the data and the triangulation of multiple forms of evidence [48,49].

4. Results

4.1. Challenges Facing the Dual Education Ecosystem in Bulgaria

One of the main motives for introducing dual training in Bulgaria is to address problems with the shortage of qualified workers and the weak connection between labor market requirements and the content of training in Bulgarian vocational schools [50,51,52]. This is one of the most serious obstacles facing the business environment in the country5. Some reasons are demographic in nature: an aging population, inactivity and migration among people of working age. Educational challenges are also at play: a high rate of early school leavers (8.2%)6, low levels of participation in lifelong learning (1.8%)7 and poor quality of education, including an emphasis on the transmission of knowledge in specific subject areas rather than the development of skills for learning or the acquisition of new competences in the formal education system [11,54]. Against this background, urgent policy measures have been taken in this regard over the past decade, yet they still seem to fail to respond to market dynamics. The latest data shows that there is still little interest in registering for dual forms of learning—only 9% of newly admitted students for the 2024/2025 academic year are in vocational education [54], with a slight increase from 0.1% (2017/2018) to 6% (2022/2023) among those enrolled in dual education by the 12th grade [16]. According to data from the Ministry of Education, 8th-graders in the 2024/2025 school year comprised 119 classes with 2572 students (Ministry of Education, official website)8.

Improving the responsiveness of VET to the changing labor market has also been addressed in strategic documents that focus on policies for the development of lifelong learning and skills-building in the country after its accession to the EU (National Strategy for Lifelong Learning 2008–2013; National Strategy for Lifelong Learning 2014–2020). The wider involvement of social partners in these processes is noted as an essential element in the process of developing better quality and practice-oriented education. However, the empirical information obtained from the interview participants shows rather problematic relationships between stakeholders, without much motivation for cooperation among the different actors in the dual system. This observation is not typical only for the Bulgarian case, but it can also be found in other countries that have a far more developed dual training system [5,21,23]. The reluctance of employers to become actively involved remains one of the most significant difficulties at the moment, despite the adopted regulatory and financial measures to support them. Some of the public administration representatives interviewed in the first phase of the project considered this a paradox:

“Although many schools in the education system already offer dual training in partnership with employers, employers are not very interested in getting involved in dual training and it is difficult to find employers. … Not enough companies, enterprises and business in general are getting involved”

(supplementary dataset, expert in public administration, stage 1)

According to the experience and observations of the interviewed experts, most employers do not want to invest time or money in training their employees, but they are also dissatisfied with the quality of vocational education offered. This problem is particularly visible when it comes to small enterprises and companies. The interviewed representatives from the public administration reported the negative impact of economic factors and the difficulty for SMEs to maintain competitiveness and simultaneously incur training costs, as they are often in a situation of “survival”. As a result, large corporations that have developed social responsibility plans and have the means to train the staff they will require are more likely to engage in dual training. Another reason for this is their belief that the training provided at vocational high schools is inadequate:

“Training opportunities exist through vocational schools and qualification centers, but they often do not keep pace with the rapidly evolving needs of the industry. Therefore, we often organize internal training and induction programs to prepare new employees according to the specifics of the production.”

(supplementary dataset, employer, stage 3)

Employers who participated in the interviews criticized the formal education system’s slow rate of change, as well as the necessity for vocational schools to modernize curricula and better align them with technological advancements:

“… skills development systems need to become more flexible, practice-oriented and better connected to real business to restore their trust and effectiveness, and cooperation needs to become informal, practical and focused on real results.”

(supplementary dataset, employer, stage 3)

Poor awareness and insufficient coordination between the state, businesses, educational institutions and local authorities are further identified problems that hinder effective interactions within the system. A prevailing perception, both among employers and among the state administration, is that there is a lack of interaction instead of effective cooperation and mutual transfer of responsibility.

It can be summarized that the obstacles related to employers’ participation are predominantly of an administrative and financial nature. On the one hand, the system’s long-term development is being hampered by inadequate resource provision, a lack of tax incentives or support for SMEs and the uncertainty of investing in personnel with no guarantee that they will continue to work for the companies that train them [12,55]. An impact assessment of the dual vocational education and training in Bulgaria [55] shows that the main difficulties highlighted by employers include: uncertainty among companies implementing dual training when it comes to retaining trained interns with jobs and the absence of any guarantee that the time and effort invested will be returned; mismatch between business needs and the skills and knowledge received by Bulgarian students in the vocational school system; and insufficient state measures to support cooperation between the education system and businesses. Additional complications arise from cumbersome administrative procedures for schools and employers to sign employment contracts with interns [55] and regulations that complicate the organization of dual education regarding advance notification, mentors, the number of students and documentation procedures [54].

On the other hand, a critical factor for the functioning of the dual system is that there are too few industrial enterprises and employers in some regions of the country expressing a need for people with specific professional qualifications that could be involved in the formation of dual training. Demographic and economic changes have an impact on educational opportunities. These regional differences imply the need for regular regional monitoring of the dual system in order to design more effective development strategies [11].

For the VET schools themselves, the organization of dual education is also hindered by the necessity to modernize outdated facilities (workshops and laboratories), improve the qualifications of teachers and motivate students and parents to choose the dual system. Interviewees from educational institutions insisted that they strive to offer new curricula in line with current demands and assessed the opportunity for work-based learning as very positive for the development of their students:

“A good solution is the participation of students in real modern production facilities—conducting educational and production practice, participation in projects, national programs with companies…”

(supplementary dataset, head of a vocational high school, stage 3)

But beyond this positive attitude, representatives of educational institutions drew more attention to the main obstacles: the need for

“Continuous qualification of pedagogical specialists”

(supplementary dataset, head of a vocational high school, stage 3)

Limited resources for investing in various activities and modern laboratories; and the lack of sufficiently proactive enterprises in relevant regions that would be interested in developing partnerships for dual training. They also emphasized the need for more freedom to make direct decisions in favor of more successful development and a more flexible institutional framework. Although efforts are being made towards changes aimed at increasing the flexibility and autonomy of Bulgarian schools and teachers, the education system in Bulgaria remains highly centralized [56]. This centralization is not only in terms of strategic control and policy direction, but it also exists in terms of the implementation of policies and curricula. This greatly hinders the effectiveness and adaptability of school management to rapidly changing conditions. The education system in Bulgaria does not allow for the decentralized implementation of strategic policy goals, which, as Ng [57] shows, would allow management to adapt policies to the local and sectoral context, exercise discretion in solving problems or providing services and quickly adapt to emerging problems.

Another challenging factor in Bulgaria is the widespread negative public attitude towards VET that makes it difficult to attract students to dual education programs. This is mainly caused by a lack of information about the opportunities provided by the dual education method, but there are also concerns that an outdated technical infrastructure, inadequate teacher training and distance from the current labor market demands for trained personnel will all have a negative impact on the quality of student interns’ professional development [19]. The unlikelihood that such social perceptions will change continues to make this form of education a far less prestigious choice for parents and students.

4.2. Sustainable Model Principles of the Dual Education System—Exemplary Case

To explore which factors may positively impact the sustainable development of dual education, we used the example of a VET school (exemplary case) located in a small provincial town in Bulgaria. By presenting this case from the perspective of school management, we analyzed how it has managed to develop sustainable interactions within the local ecosystem and overcome the problems facing the development of dual education in Bulgaria, which were identified during desk research and additional interviews.

In the locality of the exemplary case, there are three vocational high schools, three secondary schools and one private language school. Several enterprises there specialize in metal production, ore extraction, mining, electrical equipment, construction and machinery/equipment repair; the local economy has been negatively affected by a shortage of available workers with the appropriate professional qualifications. The VET school management decided to focus on the dual education system and, in order to meet current needs, changed the school profile from agricultural to industrial. In 2017, one class was formed with two specializations. Training for 12 students was supported by the DOMINO project, while the other half (13 students) was covered by partner enterprises. As of the 2021/2022 academic year, the dual education system included all students. In accordance with practical guidelines for implementing the dual system [3], pupils are admitted annually based on staffing requests from local employers. The school offers majors tailored to the needs of the local labor market, including metal production, mining, electrical equipment and machine repair.

The high school provides free transportation, facilitating access to education for students from vulnerable groups, and offers opportunities for additional licensing through driving courses for various vehicles. The school has participated in numerous projects, funded by the Ministry of Education and Science and the European Social Fund, which aim to improve the learning environment and increase staff qualifications. Participation in the Erasmus+ program allows for the exchange of experience and practices in other countries, providing real opportunities for improving the quality of education.

As the ecosystem approach suggests, several details deserve attention regarding the successful integration of the dual education system. These include taking the local context into account, readiness to continuously adapt to current changes and understanding that achieving the expected result is a process influenced by various factors and interaction among multiple stakeholders and participants [27,28,29,30]. The school’s administration considered that the strategically correct approach for its development would be a change in the established agrarian and technical profile, given the economic structure of the region that had transformed over time. “It is difficult to implement an admission plan for agricultural professions, which have almost no market share due to oversaturation or low interest” (exemplary case, stage 2). This decision was made after meetings with local employers meant to attract their interest and willingness to establish the “specific needs for specialists” in the region. At first, there was distrust among parents and students. It took three years to “launch the practice in a real work environment and convince the community that there was a point in the new venture” (exemplary case, stage 2).

The school representative noted that several goals were achieved with the new dual system for training in the school and its partnership with local employers in a real working environment: to answer the industrial need for specialists; to reduce unemployment and prevent depopulation of the area; to “ensure the opportunity for students from disadvantaged social situations to receive appropriate vocational education” (exemplary case, stage 2); and to help students find jobs. Gradually, the broader impact of the school leadership’s efforts attracted support from the local government and secured the cooperation of seven local enterprises, securing funding to update the school’s facilities. In addition, it interacts intensively with the Ministry of Education and Science, the Sofia Regional Education Department and the local municipality, gaining regulatory, administrative, methodological and informational support from them. The school also generates resources through its involvement in a number of project schemes9 that support VET through the improvement of building and technical facilities, increasing competencies among teachers and vocational training instructors and popularizing the dual education system among parents, students and enterprises. The attitude towards a flexible approach that allows adaptation to the different economic and social conditions in the region, alongside joint efforts between the high school, enterprises and institutions, has helped shape a local ecosystem in which all stakeholders contribute to the building of skills and their effective application in practice.

What stands out first of all in the school management’s approach is the idea of inclusiveness inherent in its strategic planning and management. With the attitude that “organizing a dual training system is an extremely responsible activity that requires a lot of motivation, dedication, communication, creativity and perseverance” (exemplary case, stage 2), continuous contact is maintained with local businesses in order to synchronize the specializations offered and those sought after by businesses—a well-realized need from both sides. The drive to include all stakeholders (school staff, local employers, universities, municipal and state government, experts from the DOMINO project, learners, their parents and students from vulnerable groups) has enabled a successful dual education program that is tailored and adaptable to both the local context and potential alternatives throughout the process of its development.

Another important aspect is the school administration’s efforts to inform and communicate the advantages of the dual education system. The high school regularly conducts and participates in information campaigns, open days for visiting companies and annual initiatives organized by the Regional Department of Education. Since the dual system works sustainably when there are enough interested enterprises in the region, efforts to provide information on the local economy’s job opportunities have helped to balance demand for and supply of personnel. On the other hand, providing this information alongside employers (on a joint website and joint information campaigns) has ensured ongoing responsiveness and up-to-date information about vocational training opportunities as well as career guidance for students in the area.

The annual coordination of the high school’s admission plan with local employers, participation in national career competitions and active project activities are ways through which it intensively interacts with the environment, establishing a practice that has contributed to the holistic development of the local ecosystem. The school administration also actively communicates with students and parents to counteract the established negative societal attitude towards vocational training and the opportunities it provides.

Cooperation with a university offering courses in the relevant professional field provides an “advantage in the university admission of high school students” (exemplary case, stage 2). This cooperation in the studied case has led to an easier school-to-work transition, as “companies accept students from the dual education system with priority because they have invested in them a huge human and financial resource and expect to integrate them into their ranks as good specialists with opportunities for subsequent career development” (exemplary case, stage 2).

A very important tool for assessing the viability of the training model is tracking the success of its graduates. Although the VET school has not been subject to a formal evaluation to monitor the effect of its dual education system, it already measures the effectiveness of its activities by receiving information “through partners and through personal contacts” (exemplary case, stage 2). Based on these observations, the school positively assesses the achieved results—2/3 of graduates in the last three cohorts have achieved job realization or chosen to continue to the next level of education. The opportunity to study through practical work has a strong effect on students’ future success. The advantages include professional skills “under the expert guidance of mentors”, work experience with “more modern equipment”, soft skills, discipline and teamwork (exemplary case, stage 2). In addition to job experience and interning in a real work environment, students receive a diploma and a certificate of professional qualification, both of which are an “advantage when looking for a job” (exemplary case, stage 2) compared to graduates from traditional modes of education.

Based on the case analysis, we can identify several factors that have helped establish the dual system beyond project support, integrating it into the local ecosystem and making it a sustainable model that has resulted in the improved well-being of the local community (see

Table 2. Challenges facing VET and dual training and solutions implemented by school management.

Challenges	Solutions
Weak connection between labor market requirements and the content of training in vocational schools	- adaptation to the context: changing the school profile - collaboration with local companies to establish the specific needs for specialists in the region - initiating and participating in meetings between local authorities, employers in the region and educational institutions
Low quality of VET, insufficient qualifications of teachers and outdated facilities	- participation in various projects and programs, supporting efforts to create an appropriate material environment and improving the qualifications of pedagogical specialists - partnerships with employers and a university to develop up-to date curricula providing relevant professional skills
The shortage of qualified workers	- majors tailored to the needs of the local labor market - continuous contact with employers and annual coordination of the high school’s admission plan with local employers
A high rate of early school-leavers	- free transportation, facilitating access to education for students from vulnerable groups - opportunities for free licensing courses to drive various vehicles
Low employers’ participation	- partnership with local companies and the municipality - continuous communication with stakeholders - maintaining close relationships and support from companies
Cumbersome administrative procedures for schools and employers	- intensive interaction with the Ministry of Education and Science, the Regional Education Department - close cooperation with the local municipality
Low motivation of students and parents to choose the dual system and the widespread negative public attitude towards VET	- popularizing the dual education system among parents, students and enterprises and efforts to inform and communicate its advantages with a positive advertising campaign amid strong competition between schools (secondary and vocational) - maintaining a joint website with employers, broadcasting unified messages and constantly updating information - individual work with students and parents - tracking the success of graduates - licensing through driving courses for various vehicles - supporting socially vulnerable students

).

5. Discussion

The example we have analyzed confirms the importance of proactive action by school management for the successful and sustainable development of dual education. Our analysis complements previous research on skills ecosystems [26,27,28,29] that shows the importance of local capacities for collective action. In this specific case, the school’s leadership has identified, activated and connected available resources to realize the successful implementation and functioning of dual education in the region where it is located. In this way, it responded to a need that has long been understood in the country for effective partnerships between schools and employers. The problems faced by the school administration that are being solved, to some degree, are: modernizing outdated facilities, improving the qualifications of teachers, motivating students and parents to choose the dual system, encouraging local businesses regarding dual training partnerships and responding to the conditions in a centralized and rigid institutional framework. The actions taken by the school management to solve existing problems and challenges follow the three dimensions described in the literature: (1) creating a vision that articulates a common goal between schools and businesses, translating political requirements into a local context; (2) mediating between different institutions, which is a prerequisite for more effective cooperation; (3) developing school capacity and adapting to changing conditions to maintain sustainability of partnerships. In this way, by building a culture of collaboration and real-world learning [21,32,33], stakeholders are connected through trust, communication and coordination, which makes it possible to implement the goals set out in policy documents for the development of vocational education and dual training in practice.

An important facet in the sustainable development of the dual training model is school leadership’s awareness that the formation of professional competencies is a dynamic process requiring sensitivity to the needs of the local environment, readiness for flexibility, adaptability to current changes and active engagement among all participants. The regional focus of educational programs and measures related to the development of dual education is a widely discussed topic, with a view to improving educational policies in VET [1,4,8]. Ensuring quality in dual training is linked to lasting collaborations between local businesses and educational institutions [14]. However, schools and businesses believe that the coordination and organization of quality partnerships is the most difficult part, requiring additional institutional support. For schools, this uncertainty leads to a refusal to take active steps aimed at forming dual classes and attracting students [55]. Despite the difficulties, in our example, the school has managed to achieve active and sustainable relationships with employers, state institutions and parents. At the same time, our analysis has shown the strong influence of industrial enterprises in the school’s region that are interested in becoming involved in training staff; they are an important partner in the implementation of dual education. In a complex environment with many stakeholders, a key element for successful collaboration is shared understanding and a common goal, which then provides the basis for coordinating and continuing collaborative efforts. Of key importance here is the commitment of all stakeholders and their activity in promoting or participating in joint practices [21]. Institutionally imposed cooperation in itself does not necessarily lead to effective interaction [21,22,23]. Reactive forms of interaction between stakeholders are predominantly observed, while proactive and “more elaborate cooperation tends to be the exception rather than the rule” [21] (p. 8).

The problems affecting the sustainable implementation of the dual system in the country are being addressed to a significant extent in the examined case. In practice, the lack of institutional support is successfully compensated for by the active work of the school leadership and staff, as well as their critical reflection about the options that work best in the local context. For example, demographic problems that are widespread across the country are compounded by the specific challenge of student retention among socially vulnerable groups. They often drop out for socio-economic reasons and then, due to regulatory restrictions, cannot continue their education. Given the already limited demographic resources in the district, the school makes continuous efforts to maintain contact with families and encourage students not to interrupt their education.

State institutions contribute to the development of the system through a regulatory framework, financial (program and project) support and information initiatives at the national level. However, the results of dual training in the vocational education system in Bulgaria are still weak, showing the need for more dialog and investigation into the specific concerns among participants (schools, businesses and students) in the context of their local environment. Given that the education system in Bulgaria is highly centralized, the predominant role of school management is to implement institutional recommendations and legal requirements, without necessarily seeking opportunities to expand the boundaries to achieve greater effectiveness of policies and measures. For example, the implementation of the DOMINO project has had a strong impact on the initial introduction of the dual system in the country. Within the framework of the project, practical guidance is being created, new curricula and programs are being developed, and teacher-methodologists and instructors are being trained. These tools function as “boundary objects” and play an essential role in coordinating actions and partnerships between schools and businesses. Akkerman and Bakker [58] define “boundary objects” as “mediating artifacts”—tools, documents or procedures that have a shared meaning across different social practices, even though they are used differently in each of them. They play a crucial role in boundary crossing and bringing together the different worlds of educational institutions and business. But the authors emphasize that “boundary objects” are not limited to documents or tools; they can also be “shared motives” or “shared problem spaces” that facilitate coordination between different practices [58] (p. 147). In the case study, the school principal, acting as a “boundary spanner”, has created precisely such a “shared problem space” by identifying and satisfying the common needs of local businesses, the school and students. Leadership serves as an intangible “boundary object” focused on the interests of various participants in the process, their dialog and the shared meaning behind actions, thus creating a form of cooperation between the school and employers that is more effective and more sustainable over time than the usual practices that are only normatively strengthened.

What stands out in our exemplary case is the strong personal motivation of the school management, contributing to the transformation of normatively imposed cooperation, which only implies “shared means and overlapping tasks” [5] (p. 180) in direct and highly committed cooperation between all participants—public institutions, regional authorities, local businesses, school staff, students and parents. Throughout this process, equal participation among the different actors in the implementation of the dual system, as a system of shared responsibilities, is acknowledged as critical [4,5,21,23]. Therefore, the attention and incentives embedded in educational policies and measures should help balance the responsibilities, interests and opportunities for action on the part of both employers and educational institutions by expanding their capacity for flexible and innovative solutions tailored to local conditions, instead of applying regulatory restrictions. Transformational and adaptive leadership in the local environment and taking on the role of boundary spanner helps to effectively balance the expectations of companies, the regulatory requirements of the state and the educational needs of students [32,34,37]. Visible in the leadership approach of the exemplary case are “analytical, critical thinking and whole-systems thinking” skills [5] (p. 24). These skills are expressed through adaptability and readiness to coordinate the school’s activities according to market dynamics and participant needs, identifying mutual interests, building trust and transforming regulatory requirements into internal management practices. In this way, the school management and staff not only implement policy decisions; they improve them and create added value by making efforts to improve dialog and create a local network of stakeholders [22,23]. A positive attitude and adherence to the principles of inclusion, information, communication, collaboration, participation and quality assessment in communication with other stakeholders ensure this network’s viability within the local context.

These principles are applicable in different contexts and school environments, but in order to transcend the individual level, they should be supported by institutions at the medium and macro levels. This means giving school management freedom and opportunities to implement: (1) an analytical approach to the specific context—what will work within it and how; and (2) a critical reflection on what in the specific context has the potential to contribute to the development processes of available resources, coordination and greater compatibility between different practices. This could encourage interaction and exploration of intersections between different worlds of school and work. Centralized educational systems, such as the Bulgarian one, should rethink their structure, as our analysis has shown that the transformation of strategic goals into real-life practices depends on the efforts of active individuals in the system. Their presence is decisive for the realization of set goals, regardless of the specific institution in which they work.

6. Conclusions

The dual education system plays a crucial role in overcoming the gaps between education and labor market needs and in the professional success of VET graduates. It can actively contribute to reducing regional disparities in economic terms and effectively contribute to improving well-being in local communities [50,51,52]. Sustainable cooperation can be fostered by policies that are more flexible and allow for adaptation to local levels of development and needs [59]. Incorporating adaptive elements into policy contributes to maintaining long-term commitment and coordination within educational partnerships [21]. In order to achieve local context-specificity, it is necessary to create a long-term vision for the development of the education system, so that the established policies and related measures will allow for responsiveness to the realities and structural challenges faced by stakeholders in the specific local context. In this sense, attention should be paid not only to employers but also to strengthening the capacity of school management and its mediatory role. Doing so can have a positive influence and reduce various obstacles and challenges to effective cooperation between schools and enterprises in the dual system.

7. Limitations and Directions for Future Research

While our study has detailed the ways in which a particular school is ensuring the implementation of dual education, it also has its limitations. First of all, we focused on the mechanisms applied by the school and do not claim to be representative. Although this provides an opportunity to serve as a useful and real example for other school administrators, future research could expand the sample to examine which factors or interactions contribute to the sustainability of dual education in schools in other regions. In combination with a quantitative measurement of the effectiveness of different leadership strategies, it can be established which management practices have the highest adaptability to specific national, regional and industrial contexts.

Another limitation stems from the analytical approach we applied—considering the school as part of an ecosystem of stakeholders. This approach places emphasis on the participants and leaves aside a normative policy-centric analysis. Future research could explore which normative obstacles are hindering the development of dual education and, accordingly, identify other factors that contribute to its spread. Although qualitative research is limited in terms of its objectivity, it can still offer contextual depth and suggest alternative solutions, taken from good practices, to increase the effectiveness of policies