1. Introduction
Along with established maximal oxygen uptake (VO
2max) [
1] and individual anaerobic threshold (IAT) concepts [
2], running economy (RE) assessment gained increasing popularity during the last decade [
3] and should play a major role within aerobic capacity testing in endurance sports. RE is considered a multifactorial concept with a multitude of underlying metabolic, respiratory, neuromuscular, and biomechanical characteristics. Numerous RE determinants are trainable (e.g., ventilation, metabolism) and some are of anthropometric nature (e.g., tendon length, calf circumference). RE typically refers to a steady state oxygen consumption at a given submaximal running velocity (within 1 min or over 1 kilometer/mile) and has been measured at different constant paces between 10 and 20 km per hour [
3].
Beside core temperature, heart rate, ventilation, lower limb moment arms, and muscle activity patterns during foot striking, muscle properties and fatigue components have also been discussed as modulators of RE [
4,
5]. Although only a small cross-sectional association between core strength and performance exists [
6], the trunk has been frequently considered essential in terms of force transmission and stability, as a “chain is only as strong as its weakest part” [
7]. Interestingly, few research groups have investigated the effects of a trunk fatiguing protocol on sports specific endurance performance [
8]. To the best of our knowledge, current literature is lacking in the effect of trunk fatigue on RE at IAT in well-trained runners.
As a case in point, the researchers Prieske, Muehlbauer, and Granacher (2016) [
6] recently completed an interesting systematic review and meta-analysis regarding “the role of trunk muscle strength for physical fitness and athletic performance in trained individuals”. Alluded to above, they found that although trunk muscle strength is indeed enhanced by core strength training programming, very little improvement in physical fitness or athletic performance was indicated. Notably, most of the trained or athletic populations included in their review and statistical calculations included team sports (e.g., basketball, football, baseball, volleyball), with only two running investigations and no overreaching discussion about running economy. Furthermore, both running investigations used in the analysis recruited sub-elite or recreational runners.
Tong and colleagues (2016) [
9], whose study was part of the review and meta-analysis [
6] mentioned earlier, assessed running economy at onset of blood lactate accumulation as an outcome variable in recreational runners when implementing the use of “functional” inspiratory training coupled with treadmill interval sessions and core muscle exercises over a 6-week (wk) period. Indeed, they found augmented running economy concurrent with improved core and inspiratory muscle function. In contrast, an investigation by Stanton and collaborators (2004) [
10], found no improvement in running economy after a 6-week Swiss ball intervention despite a significant improvement in core stability. Moreover, this group utilized young males (i.e., on average 15-years old) participating in baseball and touch football programs.
Thus, several studies have looked at the effects of core muscle strengthening and stability routines over about a 6-week training cycle related to alterations in running economy. The systematic review and meta-analysis included mostly team sport and non-endurance athletes. No research, that we encountered, used well-trained, competitive runners undergoing a running economy test at a competition level pace.
Hence, the present randomized controlled crossover pilot study was designed to recruit well-trained distance runners with a competitive history and current/continuous training to investigate whether two different local fatigue protocols (i.e., trunk vs. upper body) would alter RE versus a control condition. Additionally, we sought comparable lactate responses, among other measured stress variables, after the two, 24 min fatigue sessions. It was hypothesized that pre-fatigue, in general, alters RE and trunk fatigue would further encumber RE. This preliminary small sample pilot cross-over trial was primarily conducted to provide data for sample size estimation in future large scaled studies on trunk fatigue and RE.
4. Discussion
The present study, a randomized controlled crossover pilot project, investigated the effect of 24-min upper body fatigue (UPR) and trunk fatigue (TRK) sessions on running economy (RE) in well-trained and competitive collegiate runners. We hypothesized both UPR and TRK would decrement RE vs. control (CON); however, our study indicated no significant differences between all conditions (though a large but not significant interaction occurred with regard to mode × time). Further, we surmised that TRK would significantly decrement RE vs. UPR and also exert a greater negative change (i.e., greater decrease in RFD from pre- to post-condition) on the core muscle group vs. UPR. This was partially supported. Despite no significant difference between UPR and TRK on RE, TRK significantly altered (and not UPR) ab flex and back ext max isometric RFD values from pre- to post-fatigue protocol. Notably, both fatigue conditions decremented RE (mL·min−1·kg−1) vs. CON with a small to large effect size across time points (i.e., 5, 10, and 15 min of RE at IAT). Hence, based on the aforementioned effect sizes, the fatigue protocols worked to effectively alter RE (for the worse) and in particular indicated a larger, specific overload/weakness in TRK, confirming the specificity of our fatigue sessions (i.e., TRK vs. UPR).
RE is considered a major determinant of distance running success, accounting for as much as 30% of performance variation in elite level competitors [
3]. Therefore, in order to optimize running potential through augmented RE, core (or TRK) strength and stability are often considered important contributors [
17]. In fact, Sato and Mokha [
17] found a 6-week core strength training program to significantly improve 5 km run time trial vs. control despite no improvement in kinematic measures (i.e., ground reaction forces). They did not evaluate TRK or core musculature involvement. To this end, core stability and core strength are routinely discussed in the literature or coaching circles as important to sport performance while lacking depth and breadth of research to confirm this claim [
18]. We offer a pilot project whereby it seems core or trunk fatigue altered RE to a greater extent (though not significantly, but with small to large effect sizes, independent of sample size) than UPR or CON. Thus, because gross ml·kg
−1·min
−1 of oxygen uptake and use was greatest in TRK during the RE trial (especially vs. CON), oxygen delivery may have been altered or shunted to the highly fatigued, less efficient, and low economical core—thereby underscoring the need for a strong and stabilizing trunk to maintain run performance. We can only speculate that change in running mechanics and localized oxygen uptake (e.g., greater O
2 uptake to the core muscles due to the fatigue protocol) occurred to lower RE. However, a group of researchers sought to “detect deviations in the dynamic center of mass (CoM) motion due to running-induced fatigue using tri-axial trunk accelerometry” [
19]. This group found variability in horizontal plane trunk accelerations, with anteroposterior trunk accelerations to be less regular from step-to-step and not as predictable. They inferred that detectable alterations in CoM explained a fatigue state while running and that this could lead to biomechanical alterations in gait, thereby reducing running performance. Moreover, this could lead to increased energy expenditure (i.e, increased O
2 cost) that is not beneficial for propulsion and thereby further encumber RE and performance outcomes.
Looking at the broad run performance picture, RE is affected by a myriad of variables, including genetics (affecting all subsequent parameters), metabolic efficiency, cardiorespiratory efficiency, training, biomechanical efficiency, and neuromuscular efficiency [
3]. We believe, because both TRK and UPR body conditions trended toward worse RE vs. CON, with TRK eliciting the greatest drop in RE, that core/TRK muscle fatigue has the potential to collectively degrade all aforementioned RE factors (based on observed small to large effect sizes). The primary influence might be a shift in blood flow to the overly fatigued core (i.e., TRK condition), which may act as a lead domino, progressively toppling the aforementioned factors and leading to eventual inferior running performance vs. CON. This leads us to postulate that concerted, periodized core/TRK strength training, especially during the off- and pre-season as well as into a runner’s competitive season, has the potential to optimize RE by preventing a lead domino/fatigue influence. Sato and Mokha [
17] agree, recommending up to a year of core strength training with episodic testing to monitor change in biomechanical parameters of running performance, which has the potential to improve running outcomes.
Lastly, in accordance with our RE assessment protocol, we used a high level performance pace (i.e., IAT) [
15] to ensure valid, real world applicability of our results. To this end, because the TRK session effectively and significantly diminished core musculature isometric RFD from pre- to post-workout, each runner’s ability to maintain their IAT was effectively compounded. This further underscores the probable importance of maintaining a stable and strong core musculature, via specific and periodized strength-endurance training, for preserving race pace (e.g., in a 5 km or 10 km race).
5. Conclusions
The aim of this pilot study was to analyze the effect of TRK and UPR on RE. Our data suggested that running at IAT, a prominent endurance performance pace, seemed to be more strenuous due to reduced RE in TRK (vs. CON) based on small to large effect sizes across RE test time points. This may indicate a need to incorporate core/trunk strength training into a runner’s seasonal training routine to help optimize RE at IAT and, therefore, augment performance. Accordingly, adding some form of periodized, upper body strength-endurance training could also help offset negative RE influences (based on moderate effect sizes vs. CON). Future research should elucidate the mechanisms (e.g., metabolic efficiency, cardiorespiratory efficiency, neuromuscular efficiency, biomechanical efficiency) by which core strength (and/or upper body) training affects RE using a 6-week or longer, targeted routine in well-trained runners with periodic assessment of outcome measures (e.g., biomechanical analysis, running mechanics assessment). Lastly, a bigger sample size should help tease out statistically significant differences between conditions with, potentially, more pronounced effect sizes.