Author Contributions
Conceptualization, V.B., C.F.H. and Á.R.M.; methodology, V.B., L.R.R.d.S., F.L.A. and Á.R.M.; software, V.B., L.R.R.d.S. and R.D.; validation, M.J.J., F.L.A. and Á.R.M.; formal analysis, L.R.R.d.S., M.J.J., F.L.A. and Á.R.M.; investigation, V.B., and L.R.R.d.S.; resources, V.B., R.D., M.J.J., F.L.A. and Á.R.M.; data curation, L.R.R.d.S., C.F.H. and Á.R.M.; writing—original draft preparation, V.B., and L.R.R.d.S.; writing—review and editing, R.D., M.J.J., F.L.A., C.F.H. and Á.R.M.; visualization, V.B., L.R.R.d.S. and R.D.; supervision, Á.R.M.; project administration, C.F.H. and Á.R.M.; funding acquisition, F.L.A., C.F.H. and Á.R.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
Diagram and steps of the research.
Figure 1.
Diagram and steps of the research.
Figure 2.
Microstructure of the specimen material AISI 1045 steel [
19].
Figure 2.
Microstructure of the specimen material AISI 1045 steel [
19].
Figure 3.
(a) CNC machine center; (b) APX3000R253SA25SA tool holder and AOMT123608PEER-M inserts used in the end milling tests.
Figure 3.
(a) CNC machine center; (b) APX3000R253SA25SA tool holder and AOMT123608PEER-M inserts used in the end milling tests.
Figure 4.
Illustration of the welded K-type thermocouples on the workpiece: (a) top view; (b) details of the welded thermocouples; (c) side view.
Figure 4.
Illustration of the welded K-type thermocouples on the workpiece: (a) top view; (b) details of the welded thermocouples; (c) side view.
Figure 5.
(a) Illustration of the temperature measurement method by a thermal camera and (b) the image generated in the milling test experiments.
Figure 5.
(a) Illustration of the temperature measurement method by a thermal camera and (b) the image generated in the milling test experiments.
Figure 6.
Illustration of the surface roughness measurement.
Figure 6.
Illustration of the surface roughness measurement.
Figure 7.
Images identifying the tool edges where the wear was monitored in the tool life tests.
Figure 7.
Images identifying the tool edges where the wear was monitored in the tool life tests.
Figure 8.
Temperature measured with the thermocouple for the dry cut. (a) The surface response plot shows the cutting conditions’ influence and (b) the effect of the machining atmosphere.
Figure 8.
Temperature measured with the thermocouple for the dry cut. (a) The surface response plot shows the cutting conditions’ influence and (b) the effect of the machining atmosphere.
Figure 9.
Pareto chart illustrating the influence of the cutting conditions with the MQL oils (a) MQL15, (b) LB1000, and (c) MQL14.
Figure 9.
Pareto chart illustrating the influence of the cutting conditions with the MQL oils (a) MQL15, (b) LB1000, and (c) MQL14.
Figure 10.
Cutting temperature measured by the infrared camera. (a) Surface response plot showing the influence of the cutting conditions for dry cut; (b) Pareto chart for dry cut; (c) comparisons of the machining atmospheres.
Figure 10.
Cutting temperature measured by the infrared camera. (a) Surface response plot showing the influence of the cutting conditions for dry cut; (b) Pareto chart for dry cut; (c) comparisons of the machining atmospheres.
Figure 11.
Surface response plots and Pareto charts of the temperature measured by the infrared camera when machining with the vegetable-based oils. (a,b) LB1000; (c,d) MQL15.
Figure 11.
Surface response plots and Pareto charts of the temperature measured by the infrared camera when machining with the vegetable-based oils. (a,b) LB1000; (c,d) MQL15.
Figure 12.
Temperature measured by the infrared camera when machining with the mineral-based oil MQL14. (a) Surface response plot; (b) Pareto chart.
Figure 12.
Temperature measured by the infrared camera when machining with the mineral-based oil MQL14. (a) Surface response plot; (b) Pareto chart.
Figure 13.
Comparison of measurement methods.
Figure 13.
Comparison of measurement methods.
Figure 14.
Machining force results. (a) Influence of the cutting atmosphere; (b) Pareto chart with the most relevant variables for the machining force.
Figure 14.
Machining force results. (a) Influence of the cutting atmosphere; (b) Pareto chart with the most relevant variables for the machining force.
Figure 15.
Machining force results. (a) Surface response plot showing the influence of the cutting speed and feed per tooth; (b) the contribution of the cutting speed; and (c) the contribution of the feed per tooth.
Figure 15.
Machining force results. (a) Surface response plot showing the influence of the cutting speed and feed per tooth; (b) the contribution of the cutting speed; and (c) the contribution of the feed per tooth.
Figure 16.
Power consumption results. (a) Effect of lubri-cooling conditions on machining power and (b) Pareto chart showing the effects of the analyzed variables.
Figure 16.
Power consumption results. (a) Effect of lubri-cooling conditions on machining power and (b) Pareto chart showing the effects of the analyzed variables.
Figure 17.
Influence of lubri-cooling conditions on the surface roughness Ra, Ry, and Rz.
Figure 17.
Influence of lubri-cooling conditions on the surface roughness Ra, Ry, and Rz.
Figure 18.
Pareto chart for the surface roughness parameters (a) Ra, (b) Rz, and (c) Ry.
Figure 18.
Pareto chart for the surface roughness parameters (a) Ra, (b) Rz, and (c) Ry.
Figure 19.
The tool lives in AISI 1045 steel milling with MQL oils and dry machining.
Figure 19.
The tool lives in AISI 1045 steel milling with MQL oils and dry machining.
Figure 20.
Overview of the tool wear after milling AISI 1045 steel in the dry atmosphere with cutting speeds of (a,b) 200 m/min and (c,d) 250 m/min.
Figure 20.
Overview of the tool wear after milling AISI 1045 steel in the dry atmosphere with cutting speeds of (a,b) 200 m/min and (c,d) 250 m/min.
Figure 21.
Overview of the tool wear after milling AISI 1045 steel with the application of LB1000 oil with cutting speeds of (a,b) 200 m/min and (c,d) 250 m/min.
Figure 21.
Overview of the tool wear after milling AISI 1045 steel with the application of LB1000 oil with cutting speeds of (a,b) 200 m/min and (c,d) 250 m/min.
Figure 22.
Overview of the tool wear after milling AISI 1045 steel with the application of MQL15 oil with cutting speeds of (a,b) 200 m/min and (c,d) 250 m/min.
Figure 22.
Overview of the tool wear after milling AISI 1045 steel with the application of MQL15 oil with cutting speeds of (a,b) 200 m/min and (c,d) 250 m/min.
Figure 23.
Overview of the tool wear after milling AISI 1045 steel with the application of MQL14 oil with cutting speeds of (a,b) 200 m/min and (c,d) 250 m/min.
Figure 23.
Overview of the tool wear after milling AISI 1045 steel with the application of MQL14 oil with cutting speeds of (a,b) 200 m/min and (c,d) 250 m/min.
Table 1.
Chemical composition of AISI 1045 [
20].
Table 1.
Chemical composition of AISI 1045 [
20].
Element | AISI 1045 Steel (%) |
---|
C | 0.045 |
Mn | 0.69–0.83 |
Si | 0.19–0.29 |
P | 0.008–0.039 |
S | 0.015–0.02 |
Fe | balance |
Table 2.
Characteristics of the cutting oils [
22].
Table 2.
Characteristics of the cutting oils [
22].
Characteristic | MQL14 | MQL15 | LB1000 |
---|
Viscosity centistokes (cSt) to 40 °C | 9.5 to 10.5 | 60 to 70 | 39 |
Flash point (ASTM D92) (°C) | >250 | At least 180 | More than 204 °C |
Freezing point (°C) | −10 | −10 | −15 |
Boiling point | More than 270 °C and 760 mm/Hg | More than 270 °C and 760 mm/Hg | More than 279 °C |
Density (20/4 °C) (kg/L) | 0.902 | 0.920 | 0.93 |
Chemistry nature |
MQL14: Paraffinic oil, EP additives, inactive sulfo-chlorinated fatty additive, wear inhibitors, antioxidant, defoamer, and holds 1–4% zinc alkyl dithiophosphate. |
MQL15: Vegetable oils, fatty acid esters, EP additives, wear inhibitors, antioxidants, defoamer, and contains 1–4% zinc alkyl dithiophosphate. |
LB1000: Vegetable oils, extreme pressure chlorinated additives (EP), chlorine, wear inhibitors, antioxidants, and defoamer. |
Table 3.
Set of cutting conditions for the experimental tests to investigate the temperature, power consumption, machining forces, and surface roughness.
Table 3.
Set of cutting conditions for the experimental tests to investigate the temperature, power consumption, machining forces, and surface roughness.
ap = 1.0 mm; ae = 25 mm |
---|
Test Number | Cutting Speed [m/min] | Feed Rate [mm/tooth] |
---|
T1 | 150 | 0.07 |
T2 | 200 | 0.07 |
T3 | 150 | 0.14 |
T4 | 200 | 0.14 |
Table 4.
Comparison between pairs (Tukey HSD) to identify the lubri-coolant conditions that presented different temperature values measured by the thermocouple.
Table 4.
Comparison between pairs (Tukey HSD) to identify the lubri-coolant conditions that presented different temperature values measured by the thermocouple.
Lubri-Coolant | Average Temperature | Comparisons |
---|
MQL14 | 155.35 | | X | |
MQL15 | 203.18 | X | | |
LB1000 | 207.43 | X | | |
Dry | 338.75 | | | X |
Table 5.
ANOVA of the machining power.
Table 5.
ANOVA of the machining power.
Machining with LB1000, MQL15, MQL14, and Dry Fluids |
---|
| SS | Df | MS | F | p |
Lubri-Coolant Conditions | 296 | 1 | 296 | 1.11 | 0.299 |
vc | 91,506.2 | 1 | 91,506.2 | 343.61 | 0.000 |
fz | 180,766.7 | 1 | 180,766.7 | 678.79 | 0.000 |
Error | 8521.8 | 32 | 266.3 | | |
Total SS | 281,090.7 | 35 | | | |
Table 6.
Tukey HSD test to identify the lubri-cooling conditions that presented statistically different Ra and Rz roughness parameters.
Table 6.
Tukey HSD test to identify the lubri-cooling conditions that presented statistically different Ra and Rz roughness parameters.
Lubricant-Coolant Conditions | Average Ra | Comparisons |
MQL14 | 0.516 | | X | |
Dry | 0.673 | | | X |
LB1000 | 0.849 | X | | |
MQL15 | 0.959 | X | | |
Lubricant-coolant conditions | Average Rz | Comparisons |
MQL14 | 3.530 | X | | |
Dry | 3.740 | X | X | |
LB1000 | 4.334 | | | X |
MQL15 | 4.419 | | | X |