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16 September 2025

A Review of Rare Earth Elements Resources in Africa

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Tianjin Center, China Geological Survey, Tianjin 300170, China
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Southern African Mining Research Institute, China Geological Survey, Tianjin 300170, China
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Mining Strategy Research Institute, China Geological Survey, Beijing 430205, China
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals2025, 15(9), 980;https://doi.org/10.3390/min15090980
This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Rare Metal Mineral Deposits
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Abstract

Rare earth elements (REEs) are essential for modern high-tech development and have been identified as key mineral resources by major economies worldwide. This paper presents a systematic review of REE deposits in Africa, covering their distribution, reserves and resources, deposit types, mineralization ages, characteristics of typical deposits, and exploration investments. Africa hosts abundant REE resources, which are primarily concentrated in 12 countries. The continent’s reserves and advanced resources of rare earth oxides (REO) amount to 195.6 × 104 t and 1014.4 × 104 t, respectively. In recent years, exploration and development efforts have progressed rapidly. REE mineralization in Africa can be classified into eight categories, with carbonatite and ion-adsorption-type deposits currently being the primary focus of exploration and development. Exploration investment in African REE deposits peaked in 2012, followed by a decline to its lowest point in 2017. Since 2018, the exploration investment value has increased rapidly. Looking ahead, prices for light rare earth elements (LREEs) are projected to stabilize or experience a slight decrease, while prices for heavy rare earth elements (HREEs) are expected to gradually increase.

1. Introduction

Rare earth elements (REEs) are critical metals for the development of modern high-tech industries [1]. They comprise 17 elements, including the lanthanides, yttrium, and scandium, which are further subdivided into LREEs (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, and Eu) and HREEs (Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Y, and Sc) [2]. HREEs are comparatively rarer than the LREEs. The abundance of REEs in the Earth’s crust generally ranges from 0.5 to 60 ppm [3]. REEs are primarily used in advanced applications such as permanent magnets/materials, polishing, catalysts, hydrogen storage, and luminescence, as well as in ceramics, glass, and alloys [1]. They have been designated as strategic or critical minerals by major economies, including Japan (2009), China (2016), the European Union (2014, 2017, 2020), the United States (2018, 2022), and Australia (2019).
According to the Mineral Commodity Summaries [4], the global reserves of REE oxides (REO) exceed 9 × 107 t, with production increasing from approximately 3.76 × 105 t in 2023 to 3.90 × 105 t in 2024 (Table 1). China’s total quotas for REE mining and smelting separation in 2023 were 255,000 tons and 243,850 tons, respectively [5]. Although African countries have relatively few REE deposits with confirmed reserves or resources, other nations (such as United States, Canada, and Australia) have significantly increased their long-term investments in African REE deposits in recent years, accelerating the exploration and development of REE resources in Africa [1]. This paper reviews the distribution of REE resources in Africa, the characteristics of typical deposits, exploration investments in key African countries, and future trends in the cost of developing REE resources to provide a comprehensive understanding of African REE resources.
Table 1. Global REE resources and productions [4].

2. Distribution of REE Deposits and Resources in Africa

2.1. REE Deposits

Based on the analysis of annual reports from African listed companies and information on known deposits, as of May 2023, there were 64 REE deposits in Africa (Figure 1). Among them, 34 deposits are primarily focused on REE minerals (Figure 2a), 24 deposits are active (Figure 2b), 16 are in Namibia, which has the highest number of deposits (Figure 2c), and 43 deposits are at the exploration stage (Figure 2d).
Figure 1. Map of major REE deposits in Africa [1,6].
Figure 2. Characteristics of REE deposits in Africa [7]. (a) Main mineral of projects; (b) activity status of projects; (c) Country distribution of projects; (d) development stage of projects.

2.2. REE Resources

The reserves of REO in four deposits across Tanzania, Malawi, and South Africa amount to 195.6 × 104 t [7]. In 12 countries, including Tanzania, Angola, Kenya, Gabon, South Africa, Madagascar, Malawi, Namibia, Uganda, Zambia, Mozambique, and Burundi (Figure 3), the advanced reserves (Measured and Indicated) of REO across 18 deposits in total are estimated to be around 1014.4 × 104 t [7]. Tanzania ranks first in Africa with reserves of 88.7 × 104 t and advanced resources of 333.9 × 104 t of REO [7]. According to the Classification Standard for the Scale of Mineral Resource Reserves (Ministry of Land and Resources Development [2000] No. 133), information on three super-large deposits, five large deposits, three medium-sized deposits, and three small deposits in Africa has been discovered.
Figure 3. Distribution of REE resources in Africa [7].
At present, many REE deposits in Africa are still at the exploration stage, and there are relatively few deposits with published reserve and resource data. Some African REE deposits are comprehensive, with higher grades of Pr, Nd, and HREEs than those in the United States and Australia. Recent information on African REE deposits indicates that other countries are increasingly investing in African REE resources, accelerating the exploration and development of REEs in Africa (Table 2).
Table 2. Statistical list of major REE deposits in Africa.

3. REE Deposits in Africa

3.1. Deposit Types

Globally, economically valuable REE deposits are mainly associated with carbonatites, alkaline complexes, granites, pegmatites, migmatites, and REE-bearing clay and placer deposits [1]. REE deposit types typically include hard rock deposits associated with carbonatites and alkaline igneous rocks, as well as secondary deposits formed by erosion and weathering processes [2]. Secondary deposits include placer deposits and ion-adsorption deposits (rare earth elements are adsorbed in an ionic state on the surface of clay minerals), which have lower grades but are easier to extract and process than hard rock deposits [8]. Carbonatite magmas originate from the mantle at depths of 70–80 km (~2.1 GPa) [9]. Currently, more than 600 carbonatite REE deposits have been discovered worldwide [10]. Carbonatites are the main source of LREEs and Sc, with notable examples including the Bayan Obo deposit in China with 5740 × 104 t of REO at concentrations of 4–6%, the Mountain Pass deposit in the United States with 4299 × 104 t of REO at concentrations of 5.42%, and deposits such as Mount Weld in Australia, Tomtor in Russia, and Araxa in Brazil, with REO concentrations of 11%–17%, 8%–31%, and 2.5%–13%, respectively [11,12]. REE minerals primarily found in carbonatites include bastnäsite, monazite, and xenotime [13,14,15,16,17,18,19]. This study categorizes African REE deposits into eight types based on mineralization and lithology: carbonatite, placer, pegmatite, ion-adsorption, granite, metamorphic, sedimentary, and unconformity types (Figure 4). Among these, carbonatite and ion-adsorption REE deposits are currently the primary focus of exploration and development [1].
Figure 4. Genetic classification of REE deposits in Africa [7].

3.2. Mineralization Ages

At present, among the eight types of REE deposits in Africa, data on mineralization ages have only been collected for carbonatite and granite REE deposits. They were mainly formed during the Proterozoic and Mesozoic (Table 3).
Table 3. Isotopic ages of REE deposits in Africa.

3.3. Typical Deposits

African REE deposits are closely related to the evolution of the Kapvaal Craton, the Congo Craton, and the West African Craton [6,33]. Based on the known types, five representative deposits were selected for detailed analysis in this study.

3.3.1. Ngualla REE Deposit

The Ngualla carbonatite complex is located 147 km northwest of Mbeya in southwestern Tanzania (Figure 1), tectonically situated on the southwestern margin of the Tanzania Craton, adjacent to the East African Rift System [34,35]. Exploration began in the early 1980s, following an assessment of the REE resource potential conducted by Tanzanian and Canadian university-based non-governmental organizations. On 19 October 2022, Shenghe Resources Holding Co., Ltd. and Peak Resources Ltd. (Perth, Australia) signed a non-binding Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) covering topics such as the purchase of REE products, strategic cooperation, and the direct acquisition of interests in the Ngualla project [1,36].
Based on the biotite K-Ar age (1040 ± 40 Ma) [37], it can be inferred that the Ngualla carbonatite was emplaced during the Mesoproterozoic and may be associated with mantle magmatic activity in the Irumide Belt around 1040 Ma [38]. The complex is roughly circular in shape with a diameter of about 3.8 km (Figure 5), surrounded by an approximately 1 km ring of fenite. The carbonatite complex includes a ring-shaped calcite carbonatite intrusion with large and small magnesiocarbonatite intrusions within it. An iron-rich ridge extends northwards from the magnesiocarbonatite intrusion, intersecting the calcite carbonatite; another iron-rich ridge is located in the southwestern alluvial deposits. In the carbonatite complex, a phosphocarbonatite unit contains more than 5% apatite, reaching up to 40%. The calcite carbonatite locally exhibits a dominant NNE-trending mineral banding. Although the largest exposed magnesiocarbonatite dike is NNW-trending, most magnesiocarbonatite dikes are small and E-W trending. The total rare earth oxide (TREO) concentrations in the calcite carbonatite are generally less than 0.5% and are mainly hosted by monazite [19]. Within the magnesiocarbonatite, the REO content increases inwards from about 1.0% or less in the transitional carbonatite to 1 to 4% in the center. The central magnesiocarbonatite contains rare earth elements, mainly bastnaesite, synchesite associated with quartz, calcite, fluorite and barite [19]. The REO content is even higher in weathered and secondary enriched zones.
Figure 5. Location (a) and geological map (b) of the Ngualla carbonatite complex (modified from [19]).
The evolution of the Ngualla carbonatite complex involves five stages [19]: (1) In the southwestern Tanzania Craton, late Mesoproterozoic mantle magmatism caused the overlying lithosphere (felsic silicate rocks) to rupture and become brecciated. This led to the emplacement of the intrusion and the formation of fenite (Figure 6a). (2) Magma of calcite carbonatite intruded into the brecciated fenite; the magma contained fenite xenoliths with silicate, phosphate, and oxide minerals, which it distributed irregularly throughout the intrusion (Figure 6b). (3) Magnesiocarbonatite magma then intruded into the solidified calcite carbonatite, forming the core of the complex (approximately 1.2 km in diameter) and two transition zones (Figure 6c). (4) The transition zone between the two carbonatite intrusions was filled with xenoliths and was intruded by ultramafic magma before the magnesiocarbonatite could crystallize. This resulted in extensive magma mixing, with ultrabasic veins forming in the solidified calcite carbonatite and residual magma enriched with incompatible elements (Si, Ba, F and REEs) forming REE minerals, such as bastnäsite (Figure 6d). (5) Later, minor magnesiocarbonatite veins intruded into the already solidified magnesiocarbonatite and calcite carbonatite (Figure 6e).
Figure 6. Schematic cross-sectional diagrams illustrating sequential construction of the Ngualla carbonatite complex; the Y axis is depth in all panels. (a) Devolatilization of calcite carbonatite (CaC) magma (m), causing fracturing and brecciation of the overlying felsic silicate rocks and consequent formation of fenites; (b) final emplacement of calcite carbonatite into the brecciated fenite as magma or crystal mush (m), incorporation of fenitic xenoliths as glimmerite (vertical line pattern), and dispersal of crystals (black dots) into the calcite carbonatite magma mush (arrows denote convection in calcite carbonatite magma); (c) emplacement of magnesiocarbonatite as a magma or crystal mush (m) into solidified calcium carbonatite and formation of transitional carbonatite in contact zone; (d) emplacement of ultramafic magmas before complete crystallization of magnesiocarbonatite leading to mingling between the two magmas; ultramafic units emplaced as diatreme dikes in solidified calcium carbonatite; inset below shows residual concentration of minerals, including REE fluorocarbonates (e.g., synchesite), that incorporate chemical components rejected by ferroan carbonatite in mesostasis within the magnesiocarbonatite; (e) final emplacement of late-stage magnesiocarbonatite dikes in solidified magnesiocarbonatite and calcite carbonatite (modified from [19]).

3.3.2. Phalaborwa (Palabora) REE Deposit

The Phalaborwa alkaline complex is located on Loolekop Hill in the northeast of the Transvaal region, 350 km northeast of Pretoria in South Africa, at an elevation of around 478 m (Figure 1). It formed during the Paleoproterozoic era, dated at ~2060 Ma [20,39], within the Archean Kaapvaal Craton basement, which is composed of granitoids, gneisses, amphibolites, and talc-serpentinite schists [40]. The complex comprises three main zones: the Northern Pyroxenite Zone, the Loolekop Zone, and the Southern Pyroxenite Zone. These zones have a total exposure length of around 6.5 km from north to south and a width of 1.5–3.5 km from east to west (Figure 7). The complex not only hosts a world-class pipe-like copper–gold deposit but also contains significant resources of iron, platinum group metals, uranium, REEs, niobium, and phosphorus resources [41,42]. The magmatic apatite within the complex typically contains more than 0.35% REEs, with low levels of harmful components [42].
Figure 7. Location (a), geological map (b), and loophole pipe map (c) of the Phalaborwa Complex (modified from [43]).
The main lithologies within the complex are phosphate rock and carbonatite, both of which have a high REE content that can be easily extracted at concentrations of 0.2% and 0.1%, respectively. Monazite is the most common REE mineral (60%), while apatite and calcite are the most significant REE-bearing minerals (1% and 0.5%, respectively). The average total REO content in phosphate concentrate is around 6000 ppm, whereas the REO content in carbonatite and pyroxenite can reach 8000 ppm. Furthermore, extracting REEs from phosphate deposits is relatively easier and less environmentally harmful than extracting them from traditional REE deposits [41].
In this deposit, the concentrations of LREEs in apatite and calcite are relatively high compared to dolomite [44,45]. Apatite is primarily found in pyroxenite, phosphate iron ore, and carbonatite; its blue color indicates significant enrichment in LREEs [14,46]. It forms primarily during the evolution of mantle-derived carbonatite magma [47]. Early-formed apatite contains high LREEs, with the core of the zoned apatite being richer in REEs than the rim. This characteristic may be related to magmatic differentiation. Furthermore, apatite associated with carbonatite and alkaline complexes can undergo further enrichment through magmatic processes, hydrothermal alteration, and supergene processes [48,49,50,51].
Geochemical results suggest that extracting REEs from monazite, apatite, calcite, and dolomite in copper and phosphate mining tailings could yield 5.65 kg and 1.75 kg of REEs per ton, respectively. Therefore, the comprehensive utilization of these minerals could greatly benefit future mining developments [52].
The Phalaborwa complex, formed due to deep major faults and magmatic activity, is influenced by lithospheric mantle metasomatism. Around 2060 Ma, volatile-rich alkaline magma migrated along zones of weakness in the upper crust. It underwent intense water–rock interactions with the surrounding rocks, forming extensive hydrothermal alteration zones [40]. The large-scale volcanic pipe, composed of carbonatite and ultramafic intrusive rocks, primarily contains the ore of the Loolekop orebody. It exhibits well-developed sodic (albite and scapolite) and potassic (K-feldspar and sericite) alteration zones.

3.3.3. Lofdal REE Deposit

The Lofdal carbonatite and associated nepheline syenites are located in the Damara region, northwestern Namibia (Figure 1 and Figure 8). This suite comprises a main intrusion (about 4 km2) and several scattered intrusions, accompanied by numerous dikes ranging from phonolitic tephrite to phonolitic silicate veins or carbonatite dikes. These intrusions are situated within the northeast–southwest trending shear zone of the Palaeoproterozoic (>1700 Ma) Huab Metamorphic Complex on the southern edge of the Archean Congo Craton, stretching approximately 30 km in length [53].
Figure 8. Location (a) and geological map (b) of the Lofdal intrusive suite (modified from [13]).
The Lofdal intrusive suite comprises a main syenite–carbonatite intrusion and a smaller body featuring numerous east–west trending carbonatite veins and smaller calcite carbonatite bodies. Most of the phonolite and carbonatite dikes range in width from centimeters to 30 m and can extend up to 15 km along the strike. Some dikes exhibit significant hydrothermal alteration and share characteristics with the calcite carbonatite of the main intrusion. In the primary, unaltered calcite carbonatite of the main intrusion, the primary REE mineral is burbankite. The composition and structural characteristics of the Lofdal calcite carbonatite suggest that burbankite and calcite formed simultaneously. The presence of a sodium-, strontium-, barium-, and LREE-rich carbonatite magma is evidence of the early burbankite crystallization. Burbankite alteration leads to the formation of mineral assemblages, including bastnäsite, ancylite, cordylite, strontianite, celestite and barite [54].
The main HREE mineral is yttrium-bearing xenolith, which is generally found alongside iron oxides, thorite, apatite, and cerium-bearing pyroxenite. It is typically found in iron-rich calcite carbonatite veins
The yttrium-bearing xenolith, associated with iron oxides, thorite, apatite, and Ce-bearing pyroxenite, contains the primary HREE mineral, which is typically found in iron-rich calcite carbonatite veins [24]. The Lofdal intrusive suite comprises calcareous carbonatite and silica-undersaturated alkaline intrusions, ranging in composition from phonolitic tephrite to phonolite or nepheline syenite. The Y/Ho and Nb/Ta ratios suggest that the phonolitic tephrite formed from the partial melting of the mantle. Meanwhile, the phonolite and nepheline syenite evolved from the phonolitic tephrite through fractional crystallization. However, nepheline syenite has a lower REE content than phonolite. Carbonatite may have evolved as an immiscible liquid from phonolitic tephrite or phonolite melts, forming calcareous carbonatite rich in HREEs [13] and LREEs, similarly to the Phalaborwa complex [45].
The titanite U-Pb age of the Lofdal intrusive suite is 754 ± 8 Ma [23], and the Rb-Sr isochron age of the nepheline syenite is 764 ± 60 Ma [22]. These ages suggest that the suite was emplaced during the Neoproterozoic rifting of the Damara Belt [53]. Jung et al. (2007) also proposed a two-stage emplacement model: initial partial melting of the upper mantle, followed by the differentiation of unexposed alkaline basaltic magma to form the intrusion [23]. Bodeving et al. (2017) suggested that HREE enrichment may be related to subsequent hydrothermal processes [13].

3.3.4. Ambohimirahavavy REE Deposit

The Ambohimirahavavy alkaline complex is located in northwestern Madagascar (Figure 1) and was formed during the Cenozoic era. Ion-adsorption-type REE deposits are formed from the red weathering products of igneous rocks, such as the alkaline granites within this complex. This type of REE deposit typically results from the weathering of igneous rocks containing primary or secondary REE minerals in a subtropical environment. The REEs are mainly adsorbed onto the surfaces of clays (such as kaolinite and halloysite), but they also occur within the lattices of secondary minerals. The TREO content of these deposits generally ranges from 300 to 3500 ppm, with typical deposit sizes between 10,000 and 500,000 tons, providing a significant source of HREEs [55,56]. This type of deposit has primarily been mined in southern China but has recently seen large-scale exploration and development in regions such as Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia [57]. The formation of ion-adsorption-type REE deposits is influenced by factors such as climate, topography, bedrock composition, and exposure time in a stable environment. Additionally, the enrichment of HREEs is related to magmatic mixing, metasomatism, and alteration processes. Previous studies have shown that REEs leach from the top of the profile and accumulate in the middle layers [55,57]. The Ambohimirahavavy complex is part of the Cenozoic North Alkaline Province of Madagascar, which includes several intrusive and extrusive igneous massifs hosted by both Precambrian basement and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks (Figure 9). These can be divided broadly into the volcanic rocks of the Ankaizina Group, and the intrusive rocks of the Ampasindava Suite.
Figure 9. Position of the complex in North Madagascar (a) and geological map of the Ambohimirahavavy complex with the location of the four boreholes, four pits, and two road sections sampled (b) (after [58]).
The alkaline intrusions of the Ampasindava Suite are exposed on the Ampasindava Peninsula and its surroundings. They mainly include Miocene to Oligocene gabbro, nepheline syenite, syenite, quartz syenite, and alkaline granite intrusions, with Mesozoic sedimentary rocks forming the surrounding area [59]. The northeastern and southeastern parts of the Ampasindava Peninsula are primarily composed of the Ankaizina volcanic group, ranging from basalt to phonolite-trachyte [60]. This region has a tropical humid climate, with an average annual temperature between 20 °C and 27 °C and an annual rainfall of approximately 1500 mm. This climate supports dense vegetation and the formation of thick weathering layers.
The Ambohimirahavavy complex is one of the four major alkaline complexes on the Ampasindava Peninsula (together with Manongarivo, Bezavona, and Andranomatavy). It consists of silica-undersaturated or oversaturated volcanic and intrusive rocks, including quartz syenite and syenogranite intrusions in the northwest, and circular syenite intrusions containing nepheline syenite, quartz syenite, and granite in the southeast. The central and northern depressions of the circular intrusion in the southeast are mainly covered by pyroclastic rocks, with subordinate trachytic to phonolitic lava flows and rare trachytic to rhyolitic lava domes. Numerous trachytic, granitic, and granitic pegmatite veins also intrude the surrounding Mesozoic sedimentary rocks [58].
The main lithologies containing REEs are the granite, nepheline syenite, and granitic pegmatite veins in the southeastern part of the complex. REE mineralization associated with the granitic pegmatite veins has been studied in detail [61], and the economic value of the REE deposits has been evaluated by Tantalus Rare Earths AG. The primary REE-bearing minerals in these rocks include REE-fluorocarbonates, zirconosilicates, silicates, and oxides containing minor phosphates [62]. The entire Ambohimirahavavy complex is significantly affected by intense weathering under humid tropical conditions, resulting in a lateritic weathering layer approximately 12 m thick.
Analysis of lateritic profile samples from the weathered Ambohimirahavavy alkaline complex shows an uneven distribution of REEs, controlled by factors such as bedrock heterogeneity and the hydrological variation between pedolith and saprolite [58]. The profile exhibits six main characteristics: (1) All analyzed samples are primarily composed of kaolinite and halloysite, with halloysite being more prevalent in the lower soil and humus layers and higher REE content found in halloysite-rich lateritic layers. (2) A typical lateritic profile generally shows an upper leached layer where the total easily leached REEs + Y content increases with depth. (3) The distribution of REEs is primarily controlled by the nature of the bedrock and the primary REE-bearing minerals, with the REE distribution in the lateritic profile being influenced by hydrology and topography. (4) The highest concentrations of easily leachable HREEs are found above the bedrock protoliths, where the original rock contains weatherable REE minerals such as REE-fluorocarbonates, allanite-(Ce), or eudialyte-group minerals. (5) The LREE/HREE ratios in the regolith and bedrock are similar. (6) Although autometasomatism is usually considered a favorable process for forming more easily weatherable minerals, in peralkaline rocks, this process converts easily weatherable agpaitic mineralogy into unweatherable zircon, inhibiting the formation of ion-adsorption-type REE deposits.

3.3.5. Steenkampskraal REE Deposit

The Steenkampskraal REE deposit is located 71 km north of Vanrhynsdorp in the Western Cape Province of South Africa (Figure 1). Currently, Steenkampskraal Monazite Mine Proprietary Ltd. holds the mining rights. The deposit was operated by Anglo American Corporation from 1952 to 1963, which supplied monazite extracted thorium for nuclear fuel. It was then closed until exploration resumed in 2011. Currently, the deposit is estimated to contain approximately 66.5 × 104 t of REE resources, with an average TREO grade of 14.5%. The economic proportions of element are estimated as follows: Nd 56.59%, Dy 14.19%, Pr 12.43%, Tb 9.62%, Gd 2.12%, Ce 1.95%, and others 3.12% [63].
The deposit is a thin, lens-shaped monazite ore body located in the Bushmanland Sub-province of the Proterozoic Namaqua-Natal Metamorphic Province, South Africa (Figure 10a). The geological characteristics of the deposit were studied by Read et al. (2002) [64] and Andreoli et al. (2006) [65]. The eastern part of the monazite ore belt is covered by tertiary to quaternary sediments, underlain by an unconformable contact with Neoproterozoic Nama Group quartzites (Figure 10b), which form isolated hills in the western part. The ore belt is situated within granitic gneiss, granulite-facies orthogneiss and paragneiss, which are typically megacrystic, predominantly pyroxene-bearing, and largely “charnokitic” in composition. The dominant foliation (S2) occurs within the central isolated hills that hosts the mineralized monazite zone (MMZ) and the bulk of the mine. This foliation dips gently to the west in the MMZ but steepens, both along-strike and across-strike, to reach moderate dips in areas immediately to the north and south. Overall, the strike and dip trends of the dominant foliation forms a distinctive “whorl”-like structure or form–line pattern at the surface (Figure 10c). At the center of the “whorl”-like structure, the MMZ dips southward at angles of 40–60°; it contains a megacrystic leuconorite, leucodiorite, quartz-bearing anorthosite, and leucotonalite vein- or dike-like system (Roodewal Suite) [66].
Figure 10. Location (a), geological (b), and structure (c) maps of Steenkampskraal monazite deposit (after [66]).
The ore body within the Namaqua granitic gneiss is exposed across over 400 m at the surface, and extends over 450 m in depth from east to west. Analysis of ore samples taken from different locations at the surface and underground shows that the ore mainly consists of a phosphate-rich combination of monazite + apatite + chalcopyrite, and locally an oxide-rich combination of magnetite + apatite + monazite ± hercynite ± chalcopyrite. Knoper (2010) obtained a monazite SHRIMP U-Pb date of 1046 ± 7.5 Ma for the MMZ [31].
The MMZ is a moderately dipping ore body within the granitic gneiss located on the southern limb of the F3 antiform. Thickness variations, both down-dip and along-strike, are the result of D2 and D3 deformation. Subsequently, the MMZ was locally transected and steepened by late-D3 “steep-structures”, which are consistent with the characteristics of the Okiep copper deposit, which is ~150 km north of the Steenkampskraal deposit. Geochronological data suggest that the MMZ was intruded and formed at 1046 ± 7.5 Ma, with mineralization at the start of the D3 steep structures (1040–1020 Ma) [66].

4. Exploration Investment in African REE Deposits over the Past Years

Since 2012, the scale of exploration investment in REE deposits in major African REE resource countries has shown a trend of an initial decline followed by an increase [7]. In terms of annual exploration investment scale (Figure 11), investments peaked in 2012 at approximately $57.0 million and then steadily declined, reaching a low point in 2017 with investments at approximately $1.7 million. In 2018, due to China’s crackdown on illegal REE production, a global REEs supply gap emerged. This, coupled with the U.S. restarting its REEs strategy, has resulted in the U.S. Department of Defense Logistics Agency and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) actively participating in REEs investments in countries such as Malawi, Burundi, and Tanzania. Following this, Australian and British organizations and companies also joined the efforts, leading to a new wave of growth in African REE exploration investment. In 2024, the exploration investment value in African REE deposits was approximately $34.8 million, a year-on-year increase of 112.2%, reflecting a significant growth rate. According to the annual country-specific exploration investment data (Table 4), South Africa, Uganda, Tanzania, and Angola experienced rapid year-on-year growth, with Malawi, Angola, and Namibia experiencing substantial increases in funding. Since 2018, there have been many new REE discoveries in Africa. Some countries also have significant ion-adsorption-type REE deposits, but the overall situation remains unclear, warranting further research.
Figure 11. Annual exploration investment scale of REE deposits in Africa [7].
Table 4. Exploration investment scale of REEs in major African countries (Unit: ×104 USD; [7]).
In the African region, several highly developed rare earth projects are poised to make significant contributions to the global market. These include the Ngualla REE deposit in Tanzania, which is expected to be begin production by 2027; the Ozango REE deposit in Angola, where construction is already underway and commercial production is anticipated by 2026; and the Kangankunde REE deposit in Malawi, currently undergoing an expansion feasibility study with plans to commence production by mid-2026 [7]. Once these high-grade, large-reserve projects become operational, they are likely to exert a substantial influence on the global rare earth market. Investing in the African rare earth sector should not be viewed merely as resource extraction—rather, it represents a valuable opportunity to establish mutually beneficial strategic partnerships. For the international community, such collaboration is essential to ensuring the security of supply for critical raw materials and meeting climate goals. For Africa, it is a historic chance to convert resource wealth into sustainable economic development. Cooperation between African mining companies and international partners can extend beyond the conventional “investment-mining-export” model toward more comprehensive and sustainable partnership frameworks.

6. Conclusions

  • African REE deposits are primarily distributed within tectonic belts of varying ages along the margins of the Kaapvaal, Zimbabwe, and Tanzania Cratons. These deposits can be classified into eight types: carbonatite, placer, pegmatite, ion-adsorption, granite, metamorphic, sedimentary, and unconformity (spanning a broad range of mineralization ages). Currently, carbonatite and ion-adsorption-type deposits are the primary targets for exploration and development.
  • Africa’s REE resources are concentrated in 12 countries: Tanzania, Angola, Kenya, Gabon, South Africa, Madagascar, Malawi, Namibia, Uganda, Zambia, Mozambique, and Burundi. The reserves and advanced resources of REO are 195.6 × 104 t and 1014.4 × 104 t, respectively. Tanzania leads with REO reserves of 88.7 × 104 t and advanced resources of 333.9 × 104 t, ranking first in Africa
  • Exploration investment in African deposits peaked in 2012, followed by a steady decline, until it reached its lowest point in 2017. Since 2018, investments have rebounded sharply. In 2024, exploration spending reached $34.8 million, marking a 112.2% year-on-year increase—a significant surge.
  • Looking ahead, as international REE deposits commence production, LREEs will face heightened global competition, likely leading to price stabilization or a slight decline in price. In contrast, HREEs, influenced by China’s domestic reserve policies, are expected to see gradually rising prices.

Author Contributions

J.R. conceived the presented idea and prepared the manuscript. A.G., K.S., H.Z., H.S., Y.L., X.T., X.W. and Z.Z. drew all the figures. J.L. reviewed and edited. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was jointly financially supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2021YFC2901804), the China–Aid Airborne Geophysical Survey and Geochemical and Geological Mapping Technical Cooperation Project (2015–2019), and the geological investigation projects of China Geological Survey (DD20230125; DD20221801; DD20201150; 1212011220910).

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

We wish to express special thanks to Wenliang Xiong from Chengdu Institute of Multipurpose Utilization of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Guannan Wang from the China Rare Earth Group Co., Ltd., and Senior Geologist Linnan Guo from Chengdu Center of China Geological Survey for their assistance with this project.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest related to this work. We declare that we do not have any commercial or associated interests.

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