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Correction: Wang et al. Age, Genesis, and Tectonic Setting of the Serbian Čukaru Peki Copper Deposit in Timok Ore Cluster Area, Eastern Europe: Constraints from Zircon U-Pb Dating, Pyrite Re-Os Dating, and Geochemical Data. Minerals 2025, 15, 1178
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Correction published on 16 December 2025, see Minerals 2025, 15(12), 1310.
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Article

Age, Genesis, and Tectonic Setting of the Serbian Čukaru Peki Copper Deposit in Timok Ore Cluster Area, Eastern Europe: Constraints from Zircon U-Pb Dating, Pyrite Re-Os Dating, and Geochemical Data

by
Zhuo Wang
1,
Haixin Yue
2,*,
Datian Wu
3,*,
Dongping Rao
4,
Fengming Xu
1,
Wei Sun
1,
Wensong Lang
1,
Zhengze Yu
1,
Yongheng Zhou
1,
Weishan Huang
5,
Yunchou Xu
6,
Zhenjun Sun
2 and
Xin Jin
1
1
Shenyang Geological Survey Center of China Geological Survey Bureau (Northeast Geological S&T Innovation Center of China Geological Survey), Shenyang 110034, China
2
Institute of Disaster Prevention, Langfang 065201, China
3
Nanjing Geological Survey Center of China Geological Survey Bureau (East Geological S&T Innovation Center of China Geological Survey), Nanjing 210016, China
4
Sino-Zijin Resources (Beijing) Co., Ltd., Beijing 100012, China
5
Serbia Zijin Mining Co., Ltd., Longyan 364200, China
6
Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, BGRIMM, Beijing 102628, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2025, 15(11), 1178; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15111178
Submission received: 25 September 2025 / Revised: 3 November 2025 / Accepted: 6 November 2025 / Published: 8 November 2025 / Corrected: 16 December 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Granitoids and Their Importance in the Identification of Tectonic Environments, Geodynamic Evolution and Crustal Growth: Mineralizations, Geochronology, Elemental and Isotope Geochemistry)
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Abstract

The Apuseni-Banat-Timok-Srednogorie Metallogenic Belt is one of the most important polymetallic metallogenic belts in the western segment of the Tethys, where numerous porphyry-type, skarn-type, and epithermal deposits are developed. However, scholars have noted a lack of systematic chronological and geochemical studies of andesites within this belt. Furthermore, the metallodynamic mechanisms controlling mineralization—such as oceanic plate exhumation and plate tearing—remain controversial. To complement the available research, this study focuses on andesites from the Čukaru Peki area in Serbia and integrates zircon U-Pb dating, pyrite Re-Os isotopic analysis, and whole-rock geochemical analysis. The results reveal that plagioclase andesitic breccia and fine-grained plagioclase amphibole andesite were emplaced during the Late Cretaceous. Consistently, the pyrite isochron age (81.46 ± 0.60 Ma, MSWD = 1.30) constrains the mineralization event to the same period. Both rock types exhibit geochemical signatures typical of island arc volcanic rocks, characterized by high SiO2 contents and low Al2O3, MgO, and TiO2 contents, as well as pronounced fractionation between light and heavy rare earth elements (LREEs and HREEs). The magma source is the mantle wedge metasomatized by fluid-rich melts derived from the dehydration of the subducted oceanic crust. Additionally, the primary magma produced by partial melting of this metasomatized mantle wedge assimilated and was contaminated by continental crustal material predating the Vardar Ocean’s closure during its ascent. Our findings suggest that the regional andesites are products of the exhumation of the Vardar Ocean. This study aims to provide a theoretical foundation for mineral exploration in the Timok ore cluster and, simultaneously, support the identification of ore prospecting targets in andesite alteration zones.

1. Introduction

Porphyry deposits are not only a primary source of copper in the world but also account for over 70% of global metallic copper (Cu) resources, 90% of molybdenum (Mo) resources, 20% of gold (Au) resources, and a significant part of tungsten (W) and silver (Ag) resources [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]. Characterized by large reserves, shallow burial depth, and high exploitability, these deposits possess substantial economic value and thus have emerged as a focus of academic research [8,9,10,11,12]. Porphyry and epithermal deposits are spatiotemporally associated and genetically related, and both belong to magmatic-hydrothermal deposits. These deposits are mainly distributed in three major global metallogenic belts, i.e., the Pacific, Tethys, and Paleo-Asian metallogenic belts. Among these, the Tethys Metallogenic Belt is recognized as a particularly important one [13,14]. The Apuseni-Banat-Timok-Srednogorie (ABTS) Cu-Au Metallogenic Belt is located in the western part of the Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenic Belt and serves as a key tectonic unit in the western segment of the Alpine-Himalayan Tectonic Belt. Genetically, it is associated with the subduction of the Late Cretaceous Vardar Ocean (a segment of the Neo-Tethys Ocean) beneath the European Plate [15,16,17,18,19]. This belt hosts nearly 20 super-large to large-scale Cu-Au deposits, along with a large number of Cu-Au mineral occurrences. Specifically, the Cu-Au deposits in the Timok mining district are characterized by a porphyry-epithermal mineralization system (dominated by porphyry-style mineralization), with an average Cu grade of 2.0% and an average Au grade of 1.3 g/t [20,21].
The mineralization of the ABTS metallogenic belt is genetically associated with a short time interval of ~20 Ma, and controlled by multiple short-lived calc-alkaline tectono-magmatic events [22]. The Čukaru Peki deposit, as a typical representative of the eastern ABTS metallogenic belt, hosts mineralization closely linked to volcano-intrusive activity. Ore bodies are mainly hosted in amphibole-plagioclase andesites and volcaniclastic rocks, with distinct alteration zoning developed [14,23]. After years of precise constraints on the mineralization ages, scholars have reached a consensus that those of regional deposits are concentrated at 92–72 Ma [15,24,25]. However, research on andesites in the region has mainly been limited to lithotype description and alteration zoning analysis, lacking systematic geochemical tracing to constrain magma source regions and petrogenesis. The coupling between regional magmatic activity, mineralization, and tectonism requires further clarification.
There is considerable debate among scholars regarding the dynamic mechanism of the ABTS metallogenic belt, with the controversy centering on the primary tectonic mechanism. The mainstream oceanic plate exhumation model emphasizes that slab rollback and exhumation trigger back-arc extension [26,27,28], whereas the plate tearing model proposes that plate tearing causes asthenospheric upwelling, which induces lithospheric detachment, followed by melt emplacement and mineralization [29,30]. Alternatively, other scholars argue that after oceanic plate subduction terminated, orogenic collapse induced lithospheric extension in the belt, thereby triggering magmatic activity [15,31,32,33,34].
This study focuses on the Čukaru Peki deposit within the Timok Ore Cluster Area of the ABTS Metallogenic Belt, in which systematic investigations—including zircon U-Pb geochronology, pyrite Re-Os isotope analysis, and whole-rock major and trace element geochemistry—are conducted on the andesites in this area. It aims to discuss the formation age, petrogenesis, magma source region, and tectonic setting of the andesites, reveal the coupling relationship between magmatic activity and mineralization events, establish a diagenetic-mineralization model for the andesites, provide a theoretical basis and guidance for mineral resource exploration in the Timok ore cluster area and similar tectonic settings, and clarify the prospecting direction targeting andesite alteration zones.

2. Geological Setting and Ore Deposit Geological Characteristics

Southern Central and Eastern Europe hosts the Carpathian-Alpine Cu-Pb-Zn-Au-Ag metallogenic belt, the ABTS Cu-Au metallogenic belt, and the Serbia–Macedonia–Greece Rhodope Pb-Zn metallogenic belt [35,36]. The ABTS metallogenic belt spans southern Eastern Europe (including western Romania, Serbia, and Bulgaria), exhibiting an “L”-shaped distribution. The belt contains major ore cluster areas such as the Strandza, Panagyurishte, Timok, Banat, and Apuseni (Figure 1 and Figure 2). This tectonic belt formed under the complex tectonic setting of the convergence between the European Plate and the African Plate [14,22,26,37]. Ore deposit types within the belt exhibit a distinct north–south zonation, sequentially characterized by porphyry Cu-Au mineralization with minor skarn-type polymetallic mineralization; porphyry Cu-Au mineralization; porphyry Cu-Au mineralization associated with high-sulfidation epithermal mineralization; and porphyry-type and epithermal-type Cu mineralization [38,39,40]. The Timok ore cluster area is a typical representative of the porphyry-epithermal mineralization system in the western segment of the Tethyan metallogenic domain.
Scholars have divided the Timok magmatic activity into three stages. The Timok andesites are the products of the first stage of magmatic activity (approximately 90–85 Ma) in the eastern magmatic rock belt, and associated with the formation of most deposits in the region, such as Bor and Čukaru Peki [20,24,41]. This rock mass is mainly composed of Phase I andesites (with coarse-grained euhedral amphibole phenocrysts and plagioclase, and minor quartz and biotite [42]) and Phase II andesites (with amphibole and plagioclase as the dominant phenocrysts). The magmatic rocks in the central-western part of the Timok area (approximately 83–80 Ma, late phase of Stage 1) are characterized by basaltic andesites and pyroxene-amphibole andesites [41]. The second stage of magmatic activity occurred at 82–78 Ma, with lithologies mainly consisting of syenite, monzonite, and diorite [14,43]. The third stage of magmatic activity marks the termination of volcanic activity; its products consist mainly of dykes and subvolcanic intrusions in the southwestern part. Notably, this magmatic stage lacks a genetic association with ore-forming processes, while its precise timing remains undetermined [44,45].
The Čukaru Peki deposit, located in the eastern part of the Timok ore cluster area, is the first high-sulfidation epithermal–porphyry deposit discovered by Rakita Company in 2012. The strata in the deposit area consist of Upper Cretaceous volcaniclastic rocks, Miocene sedimentary rocks, and Holocene alluvial-diluvial deposits (Figure 3). Magmatic activity is dominated by andesites, which are further divided into upper andesites and lower andesites based on their positional relationships, lithologies, and alteration degrees: the upper andesites are weakly altered, mainly composed of crystal-rich tuffaceous amphibole plagioclase andesites, andesitic breccias, and andesites [46]; the lower andesites are significantly altered, with plagioclase amphibole andesites forming the core ore-hosting wall-rock unit of the deposit area; their lithology is mainly plagioclase amphibole andesites, andesitic breccias, and amphibole plagioclase andesites, intersected by multiple phases of dioritic dikes [23].
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Figure 2. (a) The geological sketch map of ABTS Cu-Au metallogenic belt; (b) Sketch map of regional tectonic location (after [17,47]). The red straight lines in the figure have no actual geological significance and are solely intended to visually highlight the “L”-shaped distribution pattern of the ABTS metallogenic belt.
Figure 2. (a) The geological sketch map of ABTS Cu-Au metallogenic belt; (b) Sketch map of regional tectonic location (after [17,47]). The red straight lines in the figure have no actual geological significance and are solely intended to visually highlight the “L”-shaped distribution pattern of the ABTS metallogenic belt.
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Figure 3. Geological map of the Čukaru Peki copper-gold deposit (after [21]).
Figure 3. Geological map of the Čukaru Peki copper-gold deposit (after [21]).
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The NW-trending regional Bor2 fault and its associated secondary faults are the main ore-controlling structures, which control magmatic emplacement and the spatial distribution of orebodies. The main mineralization is hosted in the lower andesites on the hanging wall of the Bor2 fault [18,48] (Figure 3). The Čukaru Peki deposit is composed of upper high-sulfidation epithermal orebodies (UZ-1, UZ-2) and lower porphyry orebodies (LZ-1). The UZ-1 and UZ-2 orebodies are distributed at an elevation of −400 to 0 m above sea level, while the LZ-1 orebody has a complex morphology and is mostly distributed at 550 m below sea level [18].

3. Materials and Methods

During field investigations, 7 wall rock samples (CPLZ-01, CPUZ-01, CPUZ-03, CPUZ-07, CPUZ-08, CPUZ-12, CPUZ-14) and 2 ore samples (CPZK06, CPZK09) were collected from the Čukaru Peki area. Of these, 7 wall rock samples are associated with epithermal-type mineralization. For petrographic identification and analysis of all collected samples, a transmitted light optical microscope and a reflected light optical microscope were used to acquire photomicrographs. Detailed results of this work are presented in Section 4.1.
All analyses—including zircon U-Pb dating, pyrite Re-Os isotope dating, and major and trace element analyses—were conducted on the samples at Beijing GeoAnalysis Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China).
Following separation, mounting, and polishing of zircons, and acquisition of cathodoluminescence (CL) images, analyses were conducted using a Neptune Plus multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA) and a 193 nm ArF excimer laser from ESI (Bagneux, France). During the experiment, the laser ablation spot diameter was 25 µm; the laser energy density and frequency were 2.5 J/cm2 and 10 Hz, respectively, with helium as the carrier gas. ICPMSDataCal 2.0 and Isoplot 3.7.1 software were used to process experimental data and plot age concordia diagrams, respectively. Detailed methodological information is available in [49,50].
Following pollution-free crushing, separation, and purification of the raw samples, pyrite single mineral test samples with a purity greater than 98% were obtained, with the grain size maintained below 2 mm. Detailed procedures for Re and Os separation and mass spectrometric analysis are described in [51,52,53]. Isotope analysis was performed using a Triton Plus thermal ionization mass spectrometer (TIMS; Thermo Fisher Scientific). The formula for Re-Os model ages proposed by Smoliar et al. (1996) was adopted: t = 1/λ (ln(1 + 187Os/187Re)), where λ = 1.666 × 10−11 yr−1 [54]. The isochron age was calculated using Isoplot software [55].
Rock samples with minimal alteration were selected for geochemical analysis; the samples were crushed and ground under dust-free conditions. The major and trace elements were analyzed using an Axios MAX X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer (PANalytical, Almelo, The Netherlands) and an ICAPQ inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), while Cr was analyzed using an ICAP6300 inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The analytical precision for all measurements was better than 5%. Detailed methods can be found in [56].

4. Results

4.1. Sample Description

Plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ, collected from the lower ore zone; sampling longitude: 21°57′39″–21°57′45″, latitude: 44°3′45″–44°3′47″): The sample is grayish-white, with a volcanic breccia texture and massive structure. It is mainly composed of andesite clasts (50%), quartz (10%–15%), plagioclase (25%–30%), and minor volcanic ash (5%). Among these components, the clasts have grain sizes ranging from 4 to 10 mm, while the other minerals range approximately from 0.2 to 1.5 mm (Figure 4a–c); Fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ, collected from the upper ore zone; sampling longitude: 21°57′39″–21°57′44″, latitude: 44°3′53″–44°3′58″): The sample is grayish-black, with a porphyritic texture and massive structure. Its main minerals are plagioclase (25%–30%), minor quartz (1%), and cryptocrystalline material. The plagioclase ranges in grain size from 0.5 to 1 mm, with grain margins exhibiting sericitization or kaolinization (Figure 4e,f). Hand specimen observations show that the sample contains multiple gypsum veins and hosts disseminated ore that locally forms aggregates (clusters) (Figure 4d).
Sample CPZK06 has a granular texture and cohesive structure. Its main ore minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, and a small amount of chalcocite. Pyrite occurs in two generations with relatively well-developed crystal forms. The larger grains belong to the first generation, while the second generation consists of broken fine grains, some of which are partially replaced by chalcocite. Chalcocite is distributed as irregular grains, with very small emulsiform and beaded chalcopyrite inclusions within its crystals. The paragenetic sequence of minerals is: coarse-grained pyrite→cubic pyrite→chalcocite + chalcopyrite; Sample CPZK09 is dominated by pyrite and chalcopyrite, with chalcopyrite replacing pyrite as irregular grains (Figure 5).

4.2. Metallogenic and Petrogenic Ages

In this study, LA-ICP-MS zircon U–Pb dating was performed on two andesite samples from the Čukaru Peki deposit, Serbia, and the results are presented in Table A1.
Twenty-five zircon grains were selected from each sample. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images show that the zircons are euhedral with clear internal structures, and well-developed oscillatory zoning (Figure 6). The grains range from 100 to 200 μm in diameter, with aspect ratios of 1:1 to 2:1 and Th/U ratios between 0.36 and 1.1, consistent with a magmatic origin. Among the results, one zircon from Sample 12 yielded an older age of 299 ± 5 Ma (206Pb/238U), representing a probable xenocryst or inherited grain that indicates assimilation of earlier basement material during magma genesis, while the remaining grains form a consistent Late Cretaceous age. The 206Pb/238U ages for the plagioclase andesitic breccia (CPLZ) and the fine-grained plagioclase amphibole andesite (CPUZ) range from 80.07 to 95.58 Ma and 80.28 to 88.34 Ma, with weighted mean ages of 83.5 ± 1.3 Ma and 83.5 ± 0.84 Ma, respectively (Figure 7).
In this study, pyrite samples for Re-Os isotopic dating were collected from four mineralized altered rocks at different depths in the Čukaru Peki copper deposit, with sample numbers CPZK06, CPZK08, CPZK09, and CPZK11, and elevations (meters above sea level, m a.s.l.) of 810.9 m, 1317 m, 1426 m, and 1218 m, respectively. The analytical results are presented in Table A2. The samples have low common Os contents (0.0046 to 0.67 × 10−6, mass fraction) and Re contents ranging from 1.623 to 386.8 ng/g. Their model ages range from 82.53 ± 0.85 Ma to 122.90 ± 1.40 Ma, and the isochron age is 81.46 ± 0.60 Ma (MSWD = 1.30) (Figure 8), indicating that the pyrite mineralization occurred during the Late Cretaceous. Its formation age is consistent with the petrogenic age (within analytical error).

4.3. Geochemical Characteristics

The plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ) have relatively high total SiO2 contents (46.35%–65.20%), belonging to intermediate-felsic volcanic rocks. The total alkali contents of the rocks show significant variation (Na2O + K2O = 0.08%–4.31%), with Al2O3 of 13.82%–20.59% and TiO2 of 0.32%–0.64% (Table A3). In the TAS diagram, most samples plot in the dacite field, and the Rittmann index (σ) is less than 4, indicating that these rocks belong to the calc-alkaline series (Figure 9). The total rare earth element (REEs) contents of the samples range from 62.48 × 10−6 to 101.38 × 10−6, with light-to-heavy REE (LREEs/HREEs) ratios of 6.89–25.26, (La/Yb)n ratios of 6.81–25.82, and δEu values of 0.90–1.09. The chondrite-normalized REE distribution patterns show a right-dipping trend with LREE enrichment and HREE depletion. The samples are enriched in U, La, and Nd, and depleted in Nb (Figure 10).

5. Discussion

5.1. Magmatic Rock Formation Ages and Mineralization Ages

The Central and Eastern European region, from north to south, is generally characterized by progressively younger geological evolution [36]. Mineralization is directly related to the Late Cretaceous calc-alkaline magmatic activity, and the onset and termination times vary among different segments. Scholars have conducted detailed analyses of rocks and ores in the study area, alongside high-precision radiochronological analyses. Based on these findings, they propose that the spatiotemporal distribution of magmatic-mineralization events in the ABTS metallogenic belt exhibits a general progressive pattern. This pattern is defined by “older in the east and younger in the west, older in the south and younger in the north,” and it has provided the basis for constructing a tectonic genesis-multi-stage mineralization system [22,37,42,43,59]. In this study, a systematic summary and comparative analysis of the magmatic rock formation ages and mineralization ages in the key segments of the ABTS metallogenic belt were carried out (Table A4). The obtained results are highly consistent with the spatiotemporal evolution summarized in previous studies mentioned above, which further confirms the objectivity of the multi-stage mineralization system in this metallogenic belt.
In the area under investigation, the zircon weighted average ages of the plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ) samples are 83.5 ± 1.3 Ma and 83.5 ± 0.84 Ma, respectively, both depicting emplacement in the Late Cretaceous. In addition, the isochron age of pyrite (81.46 ± 0.60 Ma, MSWD = 1.30) represents its formation age. The magmatic rock formation ages are consistent with the mineralization age within the error range. In summary, the concordant magmatic rock formation ages and metallogenic ages of the Čukaru Peki deposit reveal a tight temporal coupling between magmatism and mineralization. The ore-forming process was an immediate outcome of the evolving magmatic-hydrothermal system rather than a later separate hydrothermal event. This feature underscores the decisive control of magmatic activity on ore formation and provides a robust chronological constraint on the regional metallogenic series.

5.2. Petrogenesis and Magma Source Region

Typical arc magmas show distinct genetic signatures and geochemical characteristics, which form during the dynamics of plate subduction. They are widely distributed in volcanic arc settings associated with major subduction zones worldwide—including tectonic settings such as island arcs and continental margin arcs—and their formation is linked to the subduction of oceanic plates beneath continental or oceanic plates [44,60,61,62,63,64]. From a petrographic perspective, the volcanic rock types formed by typical arc magmas include mainly basalt, andesite, dacite, and rhyolite, among which andesite is regarded as the most representative rock type of arc magmatism [65,66,67]. The andesite samples studied in this paper have relatively high loss on ignition (LOI = 4.71–17.1 wt%), implying that they have undergone late-stage alteration [68,69,70]. To reduce the impact of alteration on the analyses, we excluded major elements whose contents change significantly during alteration, and instead selected trace elements that are relatively immobile during alteration [71,72,73].
The plagioclase andesitic breccia and fine-grained plagioclase amphibole andesite are relatively rich in SiO2 and Al2O3, while being relatively poor in MgO and TiO2, with K2O/Na2O < 1. There is no obvious correlation between the contents of SiO2 and Al2O3. In the A-CN-K (CIA ternary) diagram, all samples cluster near the A (Al2O3) end-member (Figure 11), indicating that the samples relatively enriched in Al2O3, with relatively depleted CaO* + Na2O and K2O components. This feature may be related to the kaolinization of plagioclase. The fractionation between LREEs and HREEs is distinct, characterized by LREEs enrichment and HREEs depletion. The REE distribution patterns show a right-dipping trend, and the δEu values range from 0.900 to 1.09 (indicating no obvious Eu anomaly). These rocks are relatively enriched in large ion lithophile elements (LILEs) such as La and Nd, and depleted in high field strength elements (HFSEs) such as Yb (0.450 × 10−6–1.79 × 10−6) and Y (1.99 × 10−6–15.3 × 10−6). They exhibit the geochemical characteristics of subduction zone magmas [73,74,75], and thus are characteristic of island arc volcanic rocks.
The Sr contents of the samples vary significantly (82.80 × 10−6–1603 × 10−6), with Sr/Y ratios of 5.410–805.5. Meanwhile, the CaO contents of the samples are significantly low. Considering that Sr and Ca are both alkaline earth elements, which exist as +2 cations with similar ionic radii and often coexist in Ca-bearing minerals (e.g., plagioclase) in the form of isomorphous substitution, we infer that the substantial loss of Ca in the samples is accompanied by the synchronous migration of Sr. In addition, the Sr contents of the samples show a positive correlation with LOI (Figure 12a), implying the potential influence of alteration on Sr. For instance, the alteration of plagioclase (sericitization) causes Sr to migrate with fluids, and this fluid migration subsequently induces significant changes in the Sr contents [77,78,79]. Although Ybn and (La/Yb)n also exhibit correlations with LOI (Figure 12c,d), if the influence of LOI is excluded, the Ybn values increase and the (La/Yb)n values decrease. In the petrogenetic discrimination diagrams, the samples still plot into the field of typical island arc rocks. Based on the above analysis, the geochemical characteristics of the samples are more consistent with those of island arc volcanic rocks rather than adakites.
Notably, in the rock type discrimination diagrams, the samples studied in this paper do not plot within the adakite field, showing distinctly different discrimination results from other rocks in the region (Figure 13). In addition to the effects of sample alteration and fractional crystallization, we infer that this may also be influenced by factors such as the spatial–temporal variability of local conditions in the subduction zone and the partial melting of the magma source region [80,81,82,83,84]. Subduction depth, temperature, and pressure are key factors affecting the melting mechanism [84,85,86,87,88]. In regions with greater subduction depth, young oceanic crust is more prone to partial melting under high-pressure and high-temperature (HP-HT) conditions, forming adakites. In contrast, in regions with shallower subduction depth, even if young oceanic crust exists, it may be difficult to melt due to insufficient pressure; instead, it releases fluids to metasomatize the mantle wedge, resulting in the formation of island arc volcanic rocks. Therefore, if there are local shallow subduction segments in the subduction zone of the study area (e.g., tectonic phenomena such as bending, tearing, or stagnation of the subducting plate), island arc volcanic rocks may form in shallow regions, while adakites remain dominant in the deep regions.
The La-La/Sm diagram clearly indicates that the genetic mechanism of the volcanic rock samples in the study area is dominated by magma partial melting (Figure 12i). The Th/Zr-Nb/Zr diagram shows that the andesite samples were mainly formed by fluid-enrichment processes related to the subducting slab (Figure 14b) [75]. Due to their high fluid content, the subduction of oceanic plates often induces significant mantle metasomatism and intense island arc magmatism [90]. After dehydration of the subducting oceanic crust, fluids enriched in LILEs and REEs are formed; these fluids migrate upward to the mantle wedge overlying the subduction zone, undergo metasomatic reactions with the mantle wedge, and promote its partial melting, thereby forming island arc volcanic rocks (Figure 14). It should be specifically noted that the Th/La (0.32–0.41) and Th/Ce (0.17–0.22) ratios of the samples in this study are close to the average values of the continental crust (with average values of 0.30 and 0.15, respectively), implying that the primary magma formed by partial melting of the mantle wedge was assimilated and contaminated by continental crustal materials prior to the closure of the Vardar Ocean during its ascent to the shallow crust.
In the Harker diagrams, SiO2 shows negative correlations with CaO, TiO2, and P2O5 (Figure 12e–g), implying that, during the late-stage evolution of magma, fractional crystallization of minerals such as plagioclase and magnetite occurred. The decrease in P2O5 may be related to the early crystallization and separation of apatite during the differentiation process, or it may be due to the depletion of Ca2+ in the residual magma caused by the separation of early Ca-bearing minerals (e.g., plagioclase), which restricts the formation of apatite and the subsequent enrichment of P2O5. Ultimately, this is manifested as a decrease in P2O5 with increasing SiO2. There is no significant correlation between SiO2 and Al2O3 (Figure 12h), suggesting that the behavior of plagioclase during magma differentiation may have been disturbed (e.g., dissolution-crystallization equilibrium, magma mixing [91,92]). The aforementioned geochemical characteristics are commonly observed in volcanic rocks from tectonic settings such as island arcs and continental margin arcs [93], which is consistent with the aforementioned petrogenetic discrimination conclusions and further confirms the tectonic setting and evolutionary process of the volcanic rocks in the study area.
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Figure 14. Nb/Yb-Th/Yb and Th/Zr-Nb/Zr diagrams (after [94]). (a) Nb/Yb-Th/Yb diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (b) Th/Zr-Nb/Zr diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ).
Figure 14. Nb/Yb-Th/Yb and Th/Zr-Nb/Zr diagrams (after [94]). (a) Nb/Yb-Th/Yb diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (b) Th/Zr-Nb/Zr diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ).
Minerals 15 01178 g014

5.3. Tectonic Setting

As a key tectonic unit that records the evolution of the Neotethys Ocean, the Sava-Vardar Zone clearly delineates the evolutionary history of the Vardar branch, with key geological events occurring sequentially in chronological order as follows: initial spreading of the Vardar Ocean Basin during the Late Permian-Triassic; northeastward subduction of oceanic crust and the subsequent formation of an intra-oceanic arc tectonic system in the Jurassic; obduction and emplacement of ophiolites (accompanied by high-pressure low-temperature (HP-LT) metamorphism during the early-middle subduction stage) in the Late Jurassic; entry of the oceanic crust into a stage of rapid subduction coupled with the synchronous exhumation of high-pressure metamorphic rocks in the subduction zone in the Late Cretaceous; and finally, complete closure of the ocean basin from the Late Cretaceous to the Cenozoic, after which the region transitioned to post-collisional orogeny and has undergone continuous evolution since then [95,96,97]. During the Jurassic, the lithosphere of the Neotethys Ocean initiated subduction; during the Late Cretaceous-Pliocene, driven by magmatic-tectonic processes, the ocean basin gradually underwent oceanic closure and collision [17,98,99,100,101].
Records of oceanic crust subduction in the Vardar Ocean and obduction and emplacement of large-scale ophiolites during the Jurassic are direct manifestations of plate collision in the process of oceanic closure. Among these, the obduction and emplacement of the Late Jurassic Mureş Ophiolite indicates the post-initial-subduction collisional adjustment in the western segment of the Vardar Ocean, laying the tectonic foundation for the Late Cretaceous plate exhumation. Certain high-pressure low-temperature (HP–LT) metamorphic rocks in areas related to the Vardar Ocean also provide important petrological evidence for oceanic crust subduction and subsequent exhumation [96,102,103]. Additionally, researchers have provided evidence for the slab rollback model using geological, isotope geochronological, and geochemical methods, and determined that the mineralization in the ABTS metallogenic belt is concentrated within a 20 Ma window during the Late Cretaceous [16,37]. Based on the above data, it can be inferred that the Vardar Plate underwent slab rollback during the Late Cretaceous.
All samples in this study belong to the calc-alkaline series rocks. Their SiO2 contents range from 46.35% to 65.20%, and K2O contents are relatively low (average: 1.78%). The samples are characterized by high Al2O3, low TiO2, and P2O5, enrichment in LREEs and LILEs (e.g., La, Nd), as well as depletion in HREEs and HFSEs (e.g., Yb, Y). These combined geochemical characteristics are typical of andesites formed in a subduction setting, and are closely associated with mantle material upwelling and the influence of the subducted slab during the slab rollback process of the Vardar Ocean. Meanwhile, the Th/La and Th/Ce ratios of the samples are slightly higher than the average continental crustal values, which can further quantify the intensity of crust–mantle assimilation and contamination during this stage; such a feature is consistent with the “crust–mantle coupled evolution” environment unique to the slab rollback of the Vardar Ocean. After excluding strongly altered samples with excessively high LOI values (CPUZ2-3, 7, 14), the Sr/Y ratios of the remaining samples range from 5.41 to 35.51 and exhibit a bimodal distribution. It can be inferred that the high segment (20.37–35.51) corresponds to the deep subduction of the slab in the early stage of rollback, while the low segment (5.41–7.63) corresponds to the shallow subduction of the slab in the late stage of rollback (with increasing Sr/Y ratios). Such Sr/Y characteristics of “alternating deep and shallow subduction” are an exclusive signature of the slab rollback process of the Vardar Ocean.

6. Conclusions

(1)
Late Cretaceous Mineralization and Petrogenesis: Zircon U–Pb dating of andesite samples from the Čukaru Peki deposit, Serbia, yielded weighted mean ages of 83.5 ± 1.3 Ma and 83.5 ± 0.84 Ma, while pyrite Re–Os isochron dating yielded a mineralization age of 81.46 ± 0.60 Ma. These overlapping Late Cretaceous ages demonstrate that andesite emplacement and associated Cu mineralization were essentially coeval, reflecting a major magmatic–metallogenic event in the Sava–Vardar zone during this period.
(2)
Island-Arc Magmatism and Geochemical Signatures: The andesites exhibit classic subduction-related geochemical features: high SiO2 and Al2O3, low MgO, and TiO2, enrichment in LREEs (e.g., La, Nd) and LILEs, and depletion in HREEs and HFSEs (e.g., Yb, Y). Th/La and Th/Ce ratios close to average continental crust indicate a derivation from a mantle wedge metasomatized by slab-derived fluids, with minor crustal assimilation during ascent in an island-arc setting.
(3)
Tectonic Evolution and Slab Rollback: The Sava–Vardar belt records the complete tectonic cycle from Late Permian–Triassic opening of the Vardar Ocean to its Late Cretaceous–Cenozoic closure. During the Late Cretaceous, rapid subduction and exhumation of HP–LT metamorphic rocks accompanied slab rollback, evidenced by the bimodal Sr/Y distribution in the andesites that reflects alternating deep and shallow subduction stages. Slab rollback drove asthenospheric upwelling and generated the prominent ~20 Ma metallogenic pulse observed across the ABTS belt.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Z.W.; methodology, D.W. and H.Y.; software, F.X.; validation, H.Y., W.S., W.H. and X.J.; formal analysis, D.R. and W.L.; investigation, Z.W., D.R., Z.Y., Y.Z. and W.H.; resources, W.S. and Z.S.; data curation, Z.S.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.W. and H.Y.; writing—review and editing, D.W. and Z.S.; visualization, F.X., Z.Y., Y.Z., Y.X. and X.J.; supervision, W.L. and Y.X.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the China Geological Survey Project “Investigation and Potential Evaluation of Lithium, Boron, and Copper Resources in Southeast Europe”, grant number “DD20230900802”, and National Key Research and Development Program of China: “Metallogenic Regularities and Early-Warning Decision Support for Global Strategic Mineral Resources”, grant number “2021YFC2901802”. The APC was funded by the China Geological Survey Project “Investigation and Potential Evaluation of Lithium, Boron, and Copper Resources in Southeast Europe”, grant number “DD20230900802”, and National Key Research and Development Program of China: “Metallogenic Regularities and Early-Warning Decision Support for Global Strategic Mineral Resources”, grant number “2021YFC2901802”.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author(s).

Acknowledgments

We thank Gulan Alexsandra for her valuable assistance with this work. Furthermore, we extend sincere gratitude to the editors and reviewers of this paper—their constructive comments and valuable suggestions have offered key guidance for refining research ideas and optimizing the logic of expression.

Conflicts of Interest

Dongping Rao is an employee of Sino-Zijin Resources (Beijing) Co., Ltd. Weishan Huang is an employee of Serbia Zijin Mining Co., Ltd. Yunchou Xu is an employee of BGRIMM. The paper reflects the views of the scientists and not the company.

Appendix A

Table A1. LA-MC-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating results of andesites in Čukaru Peki region.
Table A1. LA-MC-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating results of andesites in Čukaru Peki region.
Analytical Spot Number232Th238UTh/U207Pb/206Pb207Pb/235U206Pb/238U206Pb/238U207Pb/235U
ppmppmRatio1σRatio1σRatio1σAge (Ma)1σAge (Ma)1σ
CPLZ01-012163710.580.04630.00270.08680.00480.01380.000288.51.684.554.5
CPLZ01-021163230.360.05380.00330.1100.00670.01490.000395.61.9106.16.1
CPLZ01-031763370.520.04650.00300.08310.00520.01320.000284.71.581.084.9
CPLZ01-041984030.490.04960.00240.09410.00440.01390.000288.71.591.284.1
CPLZ01-053395170.660.05030.00230.09260.00450.01340.000285.61.589.884.1
CPLZ01-066978080.860.04850.00210.08780.00380.01320.000284.71.185.423.5
CPLZ01-074726140.770.05240.00230.09250.00390.01290.000282.71.089.813.7
CPLZ01-083124290.730.06000.00300.1140.00620.01370.000287.51.4109.65.6
CPLZ01-094454970.890.05070.00240.09130.00440.01320.000284.41.488.764.1
CPLZ01-102954670.630.05240.00280.09420.00510.01310.000284.11.291.374.7
CPLZ01-112073990.520.05160.00270.09370.00500.01320.000284.81.490.914.6
CPLZ01-138748940.980.04730.00190.08250.00320.01270.000281.51.180.483.0
CPLZ01-147576781.10.04510.00260.08510.00530.01370.000287.71.482.905.0
CPLZ01-151953420.570.07630.00770.1470.00860.01380.000388.51.7139.316.5
CPLZ01-162364360.540.05090.00250.09040.00450.01290.000282.51.187.914.2
CPLZ01-173425060.680.05210.00310.08940.00530.01250.000280.21.286.915.0
CPLZ01-182584530.570.06370.00420.1110.00690.01280.000282.31.2106.66.3
CPLZ01-193735120.730.04610.00250.07890.00410.01260.000280.71.177.093.8
CPLZ01-202093170.660.06060.00430.1050.00720.01290.000282.41.4101.56.6
CPLZ01-212063590.570.04820.00300.08700.00500.01350.000386.41.684.704.7
CPLZ01-224736340.750.04920.00240.08490.00410.01250.000280.11.082.773.9
CPLZ01-236818090.840.05160.00250.09120.00410.01300.000283.21.188.663.8
CPLZ01-242243500.640.06310.00500.1110.00860.01300.000283.41.3107.17.8
CPLZ01-255605990.930.06050.00330.1110.00530.01340.000286.01.2106.84.9
CPUZ-02-011462640.550.04840.00250.08880.00440.01340.000286.01.286.354.1
CPUZ02-022073730.550.05540.00320.09940.00560.01310.000283.71.296.235.2
CPUZ02-032224060.550.04660.00250.08120.00450.01260.000280.51.079.274.2
CPUZ02-043604710.760.04960.00220.08770.00390.01280.000282.21.085.403.6
CPUZ02-0510349421.10.04790.00170.08440.00290.01280.000282.01.082.302.7
CPUZ02-065394881.10.05130.00230.09030.00420.01280.000281.71.187.773.9
CPUZ02-074967380.670.04610.00190.08160.00340.01290.000282.31.079.623.2
CPUZ02-082303430.670.06130.00330.1100.00560.01310.000283.61.2105.65.1
CPUZ02-093033480.870.05220.00290.09190.00500.01290.000282.61.289.304.7
CPUZ02-101913300.580.04990.00330.08570.00540.01260.000280.81.283.485.0
CPUZ02-111152340.490.05430.00340.09920.00600.01330.000285.31.296.015.5
CPUZ02-122253370.670.04860.00220.08660.00400.01290.000282.91.184.333.7
CPUZ02-132333220.720.05260.00310.09250.00530.01290.000282.31.189.854.9
CPUZ02-143455920.580.05080.00210.09700.00420.01380.000288.31.194.013.9
CPUZ02-154244500.940.04980.00230.08940.00420.01310.000283.71.386.953.9
CPUZ02-161322590.510.04620.00290.07910.00480.01250.000280.31.277.294.5
CPUZ02-171112540.440.05340.00330.09320.00540.01290.000282.51.390.445.0
CPUZ02-183854200.920.04870.00230.08670.00390.01300.000283.11.184.413.7
CPUZ02-191202280.530.05120.00320.09040.00560.01290.000282.41.287.925.2
CPUZ02-201462820.520.04550.00250.08400.00450.01350.000286.51.281.984.2
CPUZ02-212452840.860.05010.00260.09380.00490.01360.000287.21.391.024.6
CPUZ02-222753440.800.04480.00250.07890.00440.01290.000282.61.277.104.1
CPUZ02-231852730.680.04890.00300.08590.00510.01280.000282.21.383.714.8
CPUZ02-241172230.530.04810.00330.08590.00590.01340.000385.61.783.675.5
CPUZ02-254584311.10.04850.00240.08550.00410.01290.000282.41.283.353.9
Table A2. Re-Os isotopic analyses of pyrite separates from the Čukaru Peki deposit.
Table A2. Re-Os isotopic analyses of pyrite separates from the Čukaru Peki deposit.
Sample NameSample No.Sample Weight (g)Re ng/gCommon Os (ng/g)Os187ng/g187Re/188Os187Os/188OsModel Age
Measured ValueσMeasured ValueσMeasured ValueσMeasured ValueσMeasured ValueσMeasured Valueσ
PyriteCPZK060.600521.6230.0120.00460.00000.001660.000011690.017.02.7400.00697.371.00
PyriteCPZK080.30041386.82.9000.0250.00020.3340.00273,734764101.30.282.530.850
PyriteCPZK090.1073341.490.310.670.0020.05350.0005300.103.600.61700.002122.91.40
PyriteCPZK110.30181101.60.800.0300.00020.09130.000716,26616623.260.0485.750.870
Table A3. Analysis results of major and trace elements of andesites in Čukaru Peki region.
Table A3. Analysis results of major and trace elements of andesites in Čukaru Peki region.
Testing ItemsSample No
CPLZ-01CPUZ-1CPUZ-3CPUZ-7CPUZ-8CPUZ-12CPUZ-14
SiO2%65.2063.2661.8959.9958.0062.7946.35
Al2O3%12.9118.5919.1620.5918.1117.2813.82
TiO2%0.320.510.570.640.570.540.43
Fe2O3%1.285.417.337.70 5.935.7415.9
FeO%1.10.110.0430.0830.0670.0830.027
CaO%7.140.2110.0900.2132.650.7575.07
MgO%2.20.550.0340.0941.70.810.12
K2O%1.63.60.0210.293.03.80.11
Na2O%2.70.120.0600.170.870.380.013
MnO%0.0230.0100.0190.0160.130.0280.007
P2O5%0.0890.0580.130.240.200.200.26
H2O+%3.524.056.274.884.013.354.63
H2O−%0.380.880.520.611.31.12.5
LOI%4.717.4410.59.588.687.2217.1
Total%99.4199.8799.8399.6299.9099.6699.21
TFe2O3%2.525.537.387.796.015.8315.9
Yμg/g10.713.43.897.3213.515.31.99
Laμg/g12.914.817.720.216.521.816.2
Ceμg/g25.327.235.138.130.940.330.9
Prμg/g2.923.354.385.263.794.943.75
Ndμg/g11.413.118.220.614.819.514.3
Smμg/g2.202.593.523.842.933.471.90
Euμg/g0.610.870.821.00.950.940.46
Gdμg/g1.882.302.162.912.512.921.13
Tbμg/g0.340.420.290.390.420.480.15
Dyμg/g1.792.351.031.742.262.550.41
Hoμg/g0.360.470.190.330.460.510.078
Erμg/g1.11.400.641.11.61.60.29
Tmμg/g0.200.240.160.210.250.280.090
Ybμg/g1.241.561.071.481.651.790.450
Luμg/g0.200.240.180.240.260.290.08
Liμg/g5.6416.848.818.062.210.946.0
Beμg/g0.680.770.150.491.11.50.28
Scμg/g12.413.19.9511.812.911.36.36
V μg/g185177185330207224187
Cr μg/g5.764.398.159.794.1717.54.04
Coμg/g9.2515.815.416.214.817.145.7
Niμg/g3.803.864.024.184.064.149.48
Cu μg/g3379162.0749.01413146.0160.03524
Znμg/g17.167.115.118.212.855.215.5
Gaμg/g12.415.915.915.415.419.99.28
Rbμg/g35.578.10.7208.0267.697.53.94
Srμg/g380.0273.0673.01077103.082.801603
Zr μg/g50.360.472.471.368.075.448.1
Nb μg/g2.292.882.722.992.763.031.87
Mo μg/g0.5800.2101.400.7600.7101.2313.9
Cdμg/g0.040.30.070.020.010.040.4
In μg/g0.0160.0280.0650.130.0200.0360.11
Cs μg/g0.7508.030.1901.194.774.500.270
Baμg/g20132126750.0332431183
Hf μg/g1.682.212.582.632.372.711.57
Taμg/g0.450.480.310.390.290.330.17
Wμg/g0.351.11.40.380.270.470.48
Tlμg/g0.1802.404.240.3101.844.545.25
Pb μg/g2.5315.690.36.869.6323.864.6
Biμg/g0.1400.1401.950.7900.1300.8703.86
Thμg/g4.954.696.237.126.807.225.41
Uμg/g0.7201.532.892.522.102.221.12
Table A4. Statistical table of diagenetic ages and metallogenic ages in the ABTS metallogenic belt.
Table A4. Statistical table of diagenetic ages and metallogenic ages in the ABTS metallogenic belt.
TypeStudy AreaSubject (s)MethodAges (Ma)References
rock massElatsitePre/syn ore granodioritezircon U-Pb dating92.10 ± 0.3[60]
rock massElatsiteLate mineralization dykezircon U-Pb dating91.84 ± 0.3[104]
rock massElatsitePost-ore amphibolite–granodiorite dykezircon U-Pb dating91.42 ± 0.15[104]
rock massTMCValja Strž plutonitezircon U-Pb dating78.62 ± 0.44[104]
rock massElshitsaGranitezircon U-Pb dating86.62 ± 0.02[105]
rock massChelopechPost-ore andesitezircon U-Pb dating91.3 ± 0.3[106]
rock massMedetVitosha-andesitezircon U-Pb dating89.75 ± 0.4[107]
ore bodyBorIgneous hornblende40Ar/39Ar isotopic dating84.0 ± 1.5 Ma[108]
ore bodyBorWhite mica40Ar/39Ar isotopic dating86.6 ± 1.0[108]
ore bodyPanagyurishteIgneous mineral40Ar/39Ar isotopic dating90.8 ± 0.8[108]
ore bodyPanagyurishteAlteration mineral40Ar/39Ar isotopic dating79.5 ± 0.5[108]
rock massVelichkovo quarryGranodioritezircon U-Pb dating84.6 ± 0.3[16]
rock massVelichkovo quarryHybrid gabbrozircon U-Pb dating82.16 ± 0.10[16]
rock massVetrensko GradishteHybrid gabbrozircon U-Pb dating84.87 ± 0.13[16]
rock massDolno VarshiloGranitezircon U-Pb dating82.25 ± 0.22[16]
ore bodyApuseni MountainsMolybdenitemolybdenite Re-Os dating79.45 ± 0.4~80.63 ± 0.3[37]
ore bodybanatMolybdenitemolybdenite Re-Os dating72.2 ± 0.4~82.71 ± 0.3[37]
ore bodyElatsiteMolybdenitemolybdenite Re-Os dating91.88 ± 0.5~92.43 ± 0.3[37]
ore bodyMedetMolybdenitemolybdenite Re-Os dating90.55 ± 0.5~91.31 ± 0.3[37]
ore bodyVlaykov VruhMolybdenitemolybdenite Re-Os dating86.77 ± 0.5~87.70 ± 0.5[37]
rock massTMCOsnić basaltic andesite (AO) and Ježevica andesitezircon U-Pb dating80.8 to 82.27 ± 0.35[45]
ore bodyČukaru PekiMolybdenitemolybdenite Re-Os dating88 ± 0.4[40]
rock massBorTimok andesitezircon U-Pb dating89.0 ± 0.6[42]
ore bodyBorTimok andesite40Ar/39Ar isotopic dating84.26 ± 0.67[42]
rock massTimokHornblende-biotite diorite porphyryzircon U-Pb dating83.6 ± 0.5~78.5 ± 1.3[44]
rock massNikoličevo areaHornblende andesite brecciaszircon U-Pb dating84.89 ± 0.75 Ma[43]
rock massNikoličevo areaHornblende andesite brecciaszircon U-Pb dating85.56 ± 0.53 Ma[43]
rock massNikoličevo areaHornblende-plagioclase phyric andesitezircon U-Pb dating85.23 ± 0.47 Ma[43]
rock massNikoličevo areaHornblende-plagioclase phyric andesitezircon U-Pb dating90.05 ± 0.61 Ma[43]
rock massJamaJama andesitezircon U-Pb dating85.7 ± 0.9 Ma[60]
rock massJamaJama andesitezircon U-Pb dating85.8 ± 0.7 Ma[60]

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Minerals 15 01178 g001
Figure 1. Tectonic sketch map of Eurasia (after [17]). Main active thrust belts, active subduction zones, and recent arc volcanoes are shown in black; the sutures of the Neotethys (green) and the location of Mesozoic to Oligocene arc magmas (red) are highlighted. The following tectonic units are labeled: ABTS, Alborz Magmatic Arc, Carpathian Magmatic Arc, Eastern Pontide Magmatic Arc, Keman Belt, Lesser Caucasus Magmatic Arc, Sanandaj-Sirjan Magmatic Arc, Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Arc, Yüksekova-Baskil Magmatic Arc.
Figure 1. Tectonic sketch map of Eurasia (after [17]). Main active thrust belts, active subduction zones, and recent arc volcanoes are shown in black; the sutures of the Neotethys (green) and the location of Mesozoic to Oligocene arc magmas (red) are highlighted. The following tectonic units are labeled: ABTS, Alborz Magmatic Arc, Carpathian Magmatic Arc, Eastern Pontide Magmatic Arc, Keman Belt, Lesser Caucasus Magmatic Arc, Sanandaj-Sirjan Magmatic Arc, Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Arc, Yüksekova-Baskil Magmatic Arc.
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Figure 4. Hand specimens and transmitted light optical microscopy photomicrographs of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ). Qtz = Quartz; Pl = Plagioclase. (a) Hand specimen of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ); (b) Transmitted light optical microscopy photomicrograph of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ); (c) Transmitted light optical microscopy photomicrograph of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ); (d) Hand specimen of fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (e) Transmitted light optical microscopy photomicrograph of fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (f) Transmitted light optical microscopy photomicrograph of fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ).
Figure 4. Hand specimens and transmitted light optical microscopy photomicrographs of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ). Qtz = Quartz; Pl = Plagioclase. (a) Hand specimen of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ); (b) Transmitted light optical microscopy photomicrograph of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ); (c) Transmitted light optical microscopy photomicrograph of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ); (d) Hand specimen of fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (e) Transmitted light optical microscopy photomicrograph of fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (f) Transmitted light optical microscopy photomicrograph of fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ).
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Figure 5. Samples and reflected light optical microscopy photomicrographs of the Čukaru Peki Deposit. Qtz = Quartz; Py = Pyrite; Cc = Chalcocite; Ser = Sericite; Ccp = Chalcopyrite. (a) Hand specimen of sample CPZK06; (b) Reflected light optical microscopy photomicrograph of sample CPZK06; (c) Reflected light optical microscopy photomicrograph of sample CPZK06; (d) Hand specimen of sample CPZK09; (e) Reflected light optical microscopy photomicrograph of sample CPZK09; (f) Reflected light optical microscopy photomicrograph of sample CPZK09.
Figure 5. Samples and reflected light optical microscopy photomicrographs of the Čukaru Peki Deposit. Qtz = Quartz; Py = Pyrite; Cc = Chalcocite; Ser = Sericite; Ccp = Chalcopyrite. (a) Hand specimen of sample CPZK06; (b) Reflected light optical microscopy photomicrograph of sample CPZK06; (c) Reflected light optical microscopy photomicrograph of sample CPZK06; (d) Hand specimen of sample CPZK09; (e) Reflected light optical microscopy photomicrograph of sample CPZK09; (f) Reflected light optical microscopy photomicrograph of sample CPZK09.
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Figure 6. Cathodoluminescence images of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ). The red circle represents the U-Pb age test location.
Figure 6. Cathodoluminescence images of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ). The red circle represents the U-Pb age test location.
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Figure 7. Zircon U-Pb age concordia diagrams and weighted mean age graphs. (a) Zircon U-Pb age concordia diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ); (b) Weighted mean age graph of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ); (c) Zircon U-Pb age concordia diagram of fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (d) Weighted mean age graph of fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ).
Figure 7. Zircon U-Pb age concordia diagrams and weighted mean age graphs. (a) Zircon U-Pb age concordia diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ); (b) Weighted mean age graph of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ); (c) Zircon U-Pb age concordia diagram of fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (d) Weighted mean age graph of fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ).
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Figure 8. 187Os/188Os Diagram of Pyrite from the Čukaru Peki Deposit.
Figure 8. 187Os/188Os Diagram of Pyrite from the Čukaru Peki Deposit.
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Figure 9. TAS and SiO2-K2O diagrams (after [57]). (a) TAS diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (b) SiO2-K2O diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ). Data source: [17,44].
Figure 9. TAS and SiO2-K2O diagrams (after [57]). (a) TAS diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (b) SiO2-K2O diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ). Data source: [17,44].
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Figure 10. The chondrite-normalized distribution patterns of rare earth elements (a) and the primitive mantle-normalized trace element spider diagrams (b) of andesites in the Čukaru Peki (normalization values after [58]). Data source: [17,44].
Figure 10. The chondrite-normalized distribution patterns of rare earth elements (a) and the primitive mantle-normalized trace element spider diagrams (b) of andesites in the Čukaru Peki (normalization values after [58]). Data source: [17,44].
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Figure 11. Sample data are plotted in molar proportions on the Al2O3-(CaO* + Na2O)-K2O (A-CN-K) diagram (after [76]).
Figure 11. Sample data are plotted in molar proportions on the Al2O3-(CaO* + Na2O)-K2O (A-CN-K) diagram (after [76]).
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Figure 12. Major and trace element relationship diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ). (a) Sr-LOI diagram; (b) Y-LOI diagram; (c) YbN-LOI diagram; (d) (La/Yb)N-LOI diagram; (e) SiO2-P2O5 diagram; (f) SiO2-CaO diagram; (g) SiO2-TiO2 diagram; (h) SiO2-Al2O3 diagram; (i) La-La/Sm diagram.
Figure 12. Major and trace element relationship diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ). (a) Sr-LOI diagram; (b) Y-LOI diagram; (c) YbN-LOI diagram; (d) (La/Yb)N-LOI diagram; (e) SiO2-P2O5 diagram; (f) SiO2-CaO diagram; (g) SiO2-TiO2 diagram; (h) SiO2-Al2O3 diagram; (i) La-La/Sm diagram.
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Figure 13. YbN-(La/Yb)N and Y-Sr/Y diagrams (after [85,89]). (a) YbN-(La/Yb)N diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (b) Y-Sr/Y diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ). Data source: [17,44].
Figure 13. YbN-(La/Yb)N and Y-Sr/Y diagrams (after [85,89]). (a) YbN-(La/Yb)N diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ); (b) Y-Sr/Y diagram of plagioclase andesite breccia (CPLZ) and fine-grained plagioclase hornblende andesite (CPUZ). Data source: [17,44].
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MDPI and ACS Style

Wang, Z.; Yue, H.; Wu, D.; Rao, D.; Xu, F.; Sun, W.; Lang, W.; Yu, Z.; Zhou, Y.; Huang, W.; et al. Age, Genesis, and Tectonic Setting of the Serbian Čukaru Peki Copper Deposit in Timok Ore Cluster Area, Eastern Europe: Constraints from Zircon U-Pb Dating, Pyrite Re-Os Dating, and Geochemical Data. Minerals 2025, 15, 1178. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15111178

AMA Style

Wang Z, Yue H, Wu D, Rao D, Xu F, Sun W, Lang W, Yu Z, Zhou Y, Huang W, et al. Age, Genesis, and Tectonic Setting of the Serbian Čukaru Peki Copper Deposit in Timok Ore Cluster Area, Eastern Europe: Constraints from Zircon U-Pb Dating, Pyrite Re-Os Dating, and Geochemical Data. Minerals. 2025; 15(11):1178. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15111178

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Zhuo, Haixin Yue, Datian Wu, Dongping Rao, Fengming Xu, Wei Sun, Wensong Lang, Zhengze Yu, Yongheng Zhou, Weishan Huang, and et al. 2025. "Age, Genesis, and Tectonic Setting of the Serbian Čukaru Peki Copper Deposit in Timok Ore Cluster Area, Eastern Europe: Constraints from Zircon U-Pb Dating, Pyrite Re-Os Dating, and Geochemical Data" Minerals 15, no. 11: 1178. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15111178

APA Style

Wang, Z., Yue, H., Wu, D., Rao, D., Xu, F., Sun, W., Lang, W., Yu, Z., Zhou, Y., Huang, W., Xu, Y., Sun, Z., & Jin, X. (2025). Age, Genesis, and Tectonic Setting of the Serbian Čukaru Peki Copper Deposit in Timok Ore Cluster Area, Eastern Europe: Constraints from Zircon U-Pb Dating, Pyrite Re-Os Dating, and Geochemical Data. Minerals, 15(11), 1178. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15111178

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