A Review of the Lunar 182Hf-182W Isotope System Research
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Application Principles of the 182Hf-182W Isotope System
2.1. Basic Principles
2.2. Isochron Age of the 182Hf-182W System
2.3. Model Age of the 182Hf-182W System
2.4. Quantification of Cosmogenic 182W
2.5. Quantification of Nucleosynthetic 182W
3. W Isotopic Composition in the Moon
- (1)
- Radiogenic origin [11,18,19,28,44]. The most straightforward explanation ascribes the lunar ε182W excess to radiogenic 182W accumulation. This explanation is possible if the BSM formed within the lifetime of 182Hf and had a higher Hf/W ratio than the BSE. König et al. [45] estimated the Hf/W ratio of the BSE to be ~24.9, and recently, Thiemens et al. [18] estimated the Hf/W ratio of the BSM to be 30.2–48.5, by analyzing the Hf and W mass fractions in 26 Apollo lunar rocks, including low-Ti basalts, high-Ti basalts, KREEP-rich rocks, and ferroan anorthosites (FANs). This high Hf/W ratio can be explained by a massive core (3% mass fraction of the total mass of the Moon) that formed with a DW = ~30 (DW means metal–silicate partition coefficient for W in the Moon) within 40–60 Ma after the solar system formation, as modeled by Thiemens et al. [18]. Therefore, radiogenic 182W excess could have developed in the BSM as the 182Hf decayed. This explanation makes lunar core formation the only reason for the low Hf/W ratio and high ε182W value in the BSM. However, this explanation has its drawbacks. It requires that the BSE and BSM have the same initial 182W composition. It implies no ε182W modification from other processes, which goes against the planetary accretion process [3]. In addition, the Hf/W ratio of the BSM was previously estimated to be the same as the BSE [9,10].
- (2)
- Disproportional late veneer on the Earth and Moon [14,15,20,21,22,46]. Since the “late veneer hypothesis” will be discussed at length later, it is necessary to introduce this hypothesis. The late veneer hypothesis is put forward to explain Earth’s chondrite-like HSEs abundances. HSEs were thought to be completely distributed into the core during planetary core–mantle separation because of their high Dmelt/silicate of 104. However, Chou [11] found the chondritic relative and overestimated HSEs abundances (1.0 ± 0.4% CI) in the BSE, and considered that the HSEs in the mantle were brought about by the accretion of chondrite materials. These materials might have evolved into a thin layer on the Earth’s surface before 3.8 Ga; that is, the late veneer stage [12]. The late veneer represents the Earth’s latest accretion stage and comprises the last 0.3–0.8% of the Earth’s mass [47,48]. The late veneer also occurred on the Moon because of its high HSEs abundances [13,14]. From the HSEs contents in chondritic meteorites, abundance estimations of the HSEs in the BSE, and the mass estimation of the BSE, the mass of the late veneer in the BSE was estimated to be 1.2 × 1022–3.2 × 1022 kg, ~0.3–0.8 wt% of the Earth’s total mass [49,50]. Because of the sub-nanogram HSEs abundances in the BSM, which are 40 times lower than in the BSE, the mass of late veneer in the BSM was estimated to be 1.5 × 1019–3.75 × 1019 kg, ~0.02–0.05% of the total lunar mass [51,52]. The added materials are enriched in W (150–200 ppb) but depleted in 182W (ε182W = −0.19) [53]; therefore, the disproportional late veneer would have decreased the ε182W values of the BSE and BSM by 0.20–0.30 and 0.01–0.04, respectively [49,52,54]. As a result, the BSM retained a higher ε182W value of ~0.23 [55], coincidentally similar to its present-day estimated ε182W excess (0.24 ± 0.01). This explanation considers ε182W modification caused by the planetary accretion process. However, complex accretion models are required. The calculations reducing ε182W are discrepant in different models, which may be caused by uncertainties in the calculation parameters (see Section 4.2).
- (3)
- Mantle of the impactor “Thiea” [7,9]. In canonical giant impact models, 80 wt% mass of the Moon comprises materials from the impactor’s mantle, while the rest consists of materials from the impactor’s core and proto-Earth’s mantle [56]. The impactor’s mantle probably has a positive ε182W value because of its earlier core formation, perhaps 10–20 Ma after the solar system formation [57]. Therefore, the reported lunar ε182W excess could be explained by an appropriate mass combination of materials from the impactor’s mantle, impactor’s core, and proto-Earth’s mantle. Accretion models and the same initial 182W composition between the BSE and BSM are not required in this explanation. However, the larger the proportion of Thiea’s mantle in the Moon, the smaller the proportion of Thiea’s core, which does not meet the core quality estimated by seismological detection results [15].
4. Controversy over the Age of the Moon
- (1)
- The Moon formed early, around 30–70 Ma after the solar system formation [11,16,17,18,19]. This view attributes the lunar ε182W excess to radiogenic 182W and calculates the ages by the 182Hf-182W system model age. With 182W composition measurement, similar lunar ages were obtained from different lunar samples: an age of 50 ± 10 Ma was obtained by analyzing Apollo 17 high-Ti basalts [11]; an age of ~30 Ma was obtained by analyzing Apollo 15 lunar mare basalts [16]; and an age of ~60 Ma was obtained by analyzing metals separated from two lunar KREEP-rich rocks [17]. With a new estimation of lunar Hf/W ratios (30.2–48.5, much higher than 25.6 in previous studies), Thiemens et al. [18] reported an age of ~50 Ma that was obtained by analyzing 26 Apollo samples. On the other hand, the above age results are consistent with those obtained from other isotopic systems, such as the age measured by 176Lu-176Hf for Apollo 14 zircon fractures (60 ± 10 Ma) [44] and U-Th-Pb evolution research for the BSE (69 ± 10 Ma) [58].
- (2)
- The Moon formed later than 70 Ma after the solar system formation; that is, after the extinction of 182Hf [14,15,20,21,22,59]. This view attributes the lunar ε182W excess to the disproportional late veneer on the Earth and Moon, meaning that there is no resolved radiogenic 182W difference in the BSE and BSM. Because of the higher Hf/W in the BSM [17,18], the Moon is considered to have formed after the extinction of 182Hf.
4.1. Effect of the Impactor “Thiea” on Lunar ε182W
4.2. Effect of the Late Veneer on Lunar ε182W
4.2.1. The HSEs and 182W Compositions of the BSE
4.2.2. The HSEs Compositions of the BSM
4.2.3. The HSEs and 182W Compositions of the Late Veneer
4.2.4. Mass Fraction of Late Veneer on the Earth
4.2.5. Mass Fraction of the Late Veneer on the Moon
4.3. Effect of the Oceanus Procellarum-Forming Projectile on Lunar ε182W
5. W Isotopic Constraints on the Lunar Origin
- Formation of the Earth and impactor with identical initial isotopic compositions, most probably owing to the derivation of the proto-Earth and impactor from an isotopically homogeneous pre-solar disk reservoir. Nielsen et al. [101] suggested that the best chemical analogue to this reservoir is enstatite chondrites (and aubrite meteorites). This view concluded that the BSM should have the same isotopic composition as the BSE, as the Moon was composed of materials from the proto-Earth and the impactor. Similarities of stable isotopes, such as O, Cr, Ti, and V, were successfully explained because the isotopic composition of these elements in the proto-Earth and the impactor reflects their sources [97,98]. However, the 182W composition of planetary mantles depends on their timescales and physical mechanisms (including temperature, pressure, metal-silicate equilibration, partition coefficients for W, and oxygen fugacity) of accretion, core formation, and mantle differentiation [33,56,102]. A positive ε182W was considered to be generated in the mantle of the impactor because of its earlier core formation [103]. Therefore, the 182W composition of the BSE and BSM should be disparate [55,104]. Moreover, the lunar debris disk probably contained metallic materials from the impactor’s core, which are rich in W but defective in 182W [14]. Finally, various degrees of metal–silicate equilibration without system-wide mixing might have led to 182W heterogeneity in the Moon, even if the Earth and impactor had a uniform 182W composition [46]. An inversion method was used to calculate the possibilities of similarity in W for the given unique Moon-forming impact scenarios; as a result, it was taken as a coincidence [14,97].
- Alternative models in which the Moon predominantly derived from the proto-Earth mantle rather than the impactor [7,8,9,17,93]. Canup [7] proposed a scenario in which the Moon was formed primarily from materials that vaporized from the proto-Earth’s mantle. This scenario successfully recreated the similarities of Si, O, and Cr [19,96]. Isotopic fractionation of Si depends on the core formation’s temperature and pressure conditions. Light Si isotopes preferentially partition into metallic cores, resulting in isotopically-heavy mantles [89]. O isotopes had a mass-independent heterogeneity in the early solar system and were not fractionated by any petrologic process in the Earth or Moon [13]. Cr isotopes have sensitivity in tracing extra-terrestrial input. Therefore, the extreme similarities of Si, O, and Cr suggest that the Moon derived from the mantle of the proto-Earth after terrestrial core formation. As for W, ε182W excesses of +0.10~+0.15 were reported in terrestrial Archean rocks (Figure 6), suggesting the 182W compositions of the primitive BSE were generated by early mantle differentiation and then preserved to this day. This ε182W excess is similar to that of the BSM, suggesting a derivation of the Moon from the primitive BSE. However, the formation of the isotopic heterogeneity in the BSE remains poorly investigated, and several views have been proposed, including metal–silicate equilibrium, late veneer, and core–mantle interaction. Cuk and Stewart [8] successfully explained the isotopic similarities between the Earth and Moon by using evection resonance to remove the Earth’s angular momentum constraint. Although the Moon’s excess of FeO content could not be met and a narrow range of initial conditions was needed in this model, it demonstrated the possibility of isotopic similarities in the case of loosening the angular momentum constraint. Similarly, Rufu et al. [99] proposed a multiple impact model in which the Moon was formed by various collisions between the Earth and smaller impactors. Compared to traditional Moon-forming impact scenarios, freedom in impact geometry and velocity allowed more lunar materials to be derived from the Earth, and the probability of the Earth–Moon similarity increased to tens of percentage points.
- Post-giant-impact isotopic equilibration between the Earth and Moon via vaporized silicate. Pahlevan and Stevenson [13] devised a model of the Earth–Moon system as largely molten and partially vaporized after the giant impact. In this model, a deep terrestrial magma ocean and a proto-lunar magma disk were linked by a common silicate vapor atmosphere, which was vigorously convective to exchange materials. Under such conditions, the diffusive equilibrium of isotopic composition might result from mixing and equilibrating the Earth’s mantle with the proto-lunar disk [13]. However, in the current high-temperature and high-pressure test, a shared silicate atmosphere only led to Earth–Moon equilibrium for Si and O [7,8,9], and not for refractory elements like Cr, Ti, and W [4,7,93]. Furthermore, based on a small V isotopic difference of 0.18 ± 0.04‰ between the BSE and BSM, Nielsen et al. [101] refuted the possibility of post-giant-impact equilibration between the Earth and Moon. Recently, a new giant impact model was proposed, in which the Moon was formed by high-energy, high-angular momentum giant impacts [92,105,106,107]. A new type of planetary structure named “synestia” was formed, in which the proto-lunar magma disk and terrestrial magma ocean combined to create a well-mixed reservoir. The Moon therefore had an identical isotopic composition to the Earth as it solidified from the reservoir (regardless of the possible mass-dependent isotope fractionations). However, the efficiency of this process for W homogeneity at <0.1 ε182W level remains unknown [22].
6. Conclusions and Future Expectations
- Relative to the BSE, the BSM has a significant ε182W excess, which could be caused by radiogenic 182W accumulation, disproportional late veneer on the Earth and Moon, and positive ε182W in the mantle of the Moon-forming impactor.
- Based on different explanations of the lunar ε182W excess, the lunar ages are mainly divided into two categories: an early Moon that formed in 30–70 Ma after the solar system formation or a late Moon that formed later than 70 Ma after solar system formation.
- Effects of the late veneer, meteorite contaminations on the lunar surface, and an Oceanus Procellarum-forming projectile could have profoundly influenced the lunar 182W composition. However, these effects have yet to be proven, and significant uncertainties exist in the calculation parameters used in numerical modeling approaches.
- The isotopic similarity between the Earth and Moon is a crucial constraint on the formation of the Moon. However, its origin is still unclear, and there are many hypotheses, such as (1) the formation of the Earth and the Moon from an isotopically homogeneous pre-solar disk reservoir; (2) the constitution of the Moon predominantly from the mantle of the proto-Earth; (3) post-giant-impact Earth–Moon equilibration. W isotopes could provide an essential constraint on these hypotheses.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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180W | 182W | 184W | 184W | 186W | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Abundance (%) | 0.1194 | 26.498 | 14.313 | 30.641 | 28.428 |
iW/184W | 0.00390 ± 2 | 0.86478 ± 4 | 0.467119 | 1 | 0.92776 ± 2 |
Sample | Ta (ppb) | Hf (ppb) | W (ppb) | Ta/W × ε180Hf | G-ε182W (2σ) | ε182W (2σ) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low-Ti mare basalts | ||||||
12004 | 385 | 3220 | 106 | −0.57 ± 0.22 | 0.47 ± 0.10 | 0.26 ± 0.09 |
15495 | 374 | 3030 | 67.8 | −21.22 ± 1.10 | 7.44 ± 0.10 | 0.20 ± 0.10 |
High-Ti mare basalts | ||||||
10057 | 1805 | 16,600 | 401 | −3.06 ± 0.32 | 1.23 ± 0.10 | 0.13 ± 0.10 |
70017 | 1499 | 84,800 | 63.1 | −10.16 ± 1.56 | 3.97 ± 0.15 | 0.21 ± 0.15 |
70035 | 2058 | 12,500 | 101 | −11.94 ± 0.73 | 4.80 ± 0.10 | 0.35 ± 0.10 |
70215 | 1405 | 65,600 | 58.5 | −4.24 ± 0.82 | 1.79 ± 0.12 | 0.22 ± 0.12 |
79155 | ND | ND | ND | −104.8 ± 5.70 | 37.9 ± 1.00 | 0.15 ± 0.90 |
75035 | 1861 | 11,300 | 86.5 | −16.62 ± 1.29 | 6.13 ± 0.10 | 0.14 ± 0.10 |
Mg-suite norite | ||||||
77215 | 400 | 3480 | 212 | −0.17 ± 0.09 | 0.37 ± 0.10 | 0.30 ± 0.13 |
Lunar meteorite | ||||||
Kalahari 009 | 31.5 | 422 | 16.5 | −0.06 ± 0.17 | 0.25 ± 0.11 | 0.23 ± 0.20 |
KREEP-rich rocks a | ||||||
12034 | 2489 | 20,600 | 1328 | −3.63 ± 0.19 | 1.26 ± 0.10 | 0.27 ± 0.09 |
14163 | 2782 | 22,900 | 1492 | −7.47 ± 0.38 | 2.35 ± 0.04 | 0.33 ± 0.04 |
14130 | 2214 | 19,300 | 1101 | −6.06 ± 0.33 | 1.87 ± 0.10 | 0.24 ± 0.09 |
14321 | 884 | 7510 | 351 | −0.07 ± 0.02 | 0.27 ± 0.04 | 0.25 ± 0.02 |
68115 | ND | ND | ND | −0.04 ± 0.10 | 0.29 ± 0.05 | 0.28 ± 0.05 |
62235 | 2012 | 19,600 | 959 | −5.31 ± 0.30 | 1.63 ± 0.10 | 0.20 ± 0.09 |
Lunar metals separated from KREEP-rich rocks b | ||||||
68115, 114 | ND | 2230 | 3270 | ND | ND | 0.23 ± 0.04 |
68815, 394 | ND | 1410 | 2280 | ND | ND | 0.18 ± 0.03 |
68815, 396 | ND | 270 | 3630 | ND | ND | 0.20 ± 0.03 |
Average | ||||||
1443 | 17,340 | 913 | ND | ND | 0.24 ± 0.01 |
Parameter | Description | Value |
---|---|---|
G | Mass ratio of the impactor to the Earth | 0.04–0.15 |
Γ | Mass fraction of the mantle in the Earth and impactor | 0.68 |
K | Mass fraction of the impactor core equilibrated with the Earth’s mantle | 0–100% |
H | Mass fraction of the Moon composed of the impactor’s mantle | 0%, 20% or 80% |
F | Mass fraction of the Moon composed of the impactor’s core | 0–2.5% |
Metal-silicate partition coefficient for W in the Earth after the giant impact | 20–100 | |
Metal-silicate partition coefficient for W in the Moon | 1–100 | |
Metal-silicate partition coefficient for W in the impactor | 5–100 | |
t | Time of core formation in the impactor after solar system formation | 5–20 Ma |
(Hf/W)CHUR | Hf/W of chondrite meteorites | 1.14 |
(Hf/W)BSE | Hf/W of the BSE | ~23 |
ε182WCHUR | Present-day ε182W of chondrite meteorites | −1.9 ± 0.1 |
ε182WCAIs | Initial ε182W value of CAIs | −3.49 ± 0.07 |
(182Hf/180Hf)CAIs | Initial 182Hf/180Hf ratio of CAIs | 1.018 × 10−4 |
Added Materials | [W] a | [ε182W] b | Mass c | Pre-LV ε182W d | ε182W Decreases in the BSE |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CI | 113 | −2.20 | 0.59 | 0.17 | 0.12–0.29 |
CM | 127 | −1.73 | 0.45 | 0.11 | 0.08–0.19 |
CO | 169 | −1.83 | 0.33 | 0.12 | 0.09–0.20 |
CK | 199 | −2.00 | 0.37 | 0.18 | 0.12–0.30 |
CV | 171 | −1.97 | 0.35 | 0.14 | 0.10–0.23 |
CR | 165 | −1.77 | 0.41 | 0.14 | 0.10–0.24 |
H | 178 | −2.25 | 0.32 | 0.16 | 0.12–0.28 |
L | 129 | −2.00 | 0.44 | 0.14 | 0.10–0.24 |
LL | 95 | −1.60 | 0.74 | 0.14 | 0.10–0.24 |
EH | 128 | −2.23 | 0.45 | 0.15 | 0.11–0.26 |
EL | 135 | −1.98 | 0.41 | 0.14 | 0.10–0.23 |
80% CC + 20% VIA | 202 | −2.60 | 0.34 | 0.22 | 0.16–0.38 |
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Yang, Z.; Wang, G.; Xu, Y.; Zeng, Y.; Zhang, Z. A Review of the Lunar 182Hf-182W Isotope System Research. Minerals 2022, 12, 759. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12060759
Yang Z, Wang G, Xu Y, Zeng Y, Zhang Z. A Review of the Lunar 182Hf-182W Isotope System Research. Minerals. 2022; 12(6):759. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12060759
Chicago/Turabian StyleYang, Zhen, Guiqin Wang, Yuming Xu, Yuling Zeng, and Zhaofeng Zhang. 2022. "A Review of the Lunar 182Hf-182W Isotope System Research" Minerals 12, no. 6: 759. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12060759