Mineralogical Analysis of the Kestel Mine: An Early Bronze Age Source of Tin Ore in the Taurus Mountains, Turkey
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Controversy
1.2. Regional and Local Geology
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. In Situ Veins and Surface Finds
3.2. Heavy Mineral Concentrate
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
- 1.
- Remnant exposures of Kestel mineralization are composed of mineralogically simple assemblages (Hem + Qz ± Cst ± Tur ± Cal ± Clay) with trace Apy, Bi, and Au.
- 2.
- The heavy mineral assemblage preserved in sediments within the mine are far more complex than that of surface veins, with 27 heavy-metal bearing minerals identified, and the additional elemental components Sb, REEs, W, Hg, and Pb. Thus, the remnant mineralization is not representative of the ore that was extracted.
- 3.
- Arsenates are the most diverse group of minerals within heavy mineral fraction, and they are directly associated with cassiterite.
- 4.
- The scarcity of Cu, Au, and the lack of elements including Co, Ni, U, and F indicate that Kestel is not an OICG deposit. Rather the shallowly emplaced Hem + Qz + Cst + Arsenates ores appear to be a regional feature, occurring both at Kestel and at Hisarcık, and so may represent a new target for tin exploration in Central Turkey.
- 5.
- With cassiterite being the only non-ferrous ore mineral present at <1%, and the paucity of gold both in mine sediments and surface veins it is clear that Kestel was a large-scale tin mine in the Early Bronze Age.
- 6.
- Activities at Kestel represent the earliest evidence thus far for an emerging pattern of local tin exploitation that may continue into the Late Bronze Age. More definitively, this evidence demonstrates that Central Turkey was a significant tin producer in the Early Bronze Age, a millennium before nearby Kültepe-Kanesh arose as an administrative trade center that is known to have imported tin from Central Asia.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Mineral Name | Abbreviation in Text | Formula |
---|---|---|
Native Antimony | Sb | Sb |
Native Bismuth | Bi | |
Native Gold | Au | |
Arsenopyrite | Apy | FeAsS |
Cinnabar | HgS | |
Wittechinite | CuBiS3 | |
Hematite | Hem | Fe2O3 |
Magnetite | Fe3O4 | |
Ilmenite | FeTiO3 | |
Chromite | FeCr2O4 | |
Cassiterite | Cst | SnO2 |
Rutile | TiO2 | |
Damaraite | Pb3O2(OH)Cl | |
Beyerite | Bey | Ca(BiO2)(CO3)2 |
Calcite | Cal | CaCO3 |
Cerussite | Cer | PbCO3 |
Dolomite | Dol | MgCa(CO3)2 |
Barstowite | Bst | Pb4Cl6(CO3) · H2O |
Barite | BaSO4 | |
Apatite | Ap | Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH) |
Monazite | Mnz | (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO4 |
As-Monazite | As-Mnz | (Ce,La,Nd,Th)(As,P)O4 |
Phosphohedyphane | Ca2Pb3(PO4)3Cl | |
Plumbogummite | PbAl3(PO4)(PO3OH)(OH)6 | |
Fluorcalcioroméite | (Ca,Na,□)2Sb5+2(O,OH)6F | |
Arsenoflorencite | (Ce,La,Nd)Al3(AsO4)2(OH)6 | |
Berzeliite | Brz | (NaCa2)Mg2(AsO4)3 |
Chernovite | YAsO4 | |
Mimetite | Pb5(AsO4)3Cl | |
Sewardite | Sew | CaFe3+2(AsO4)2(OH)2 |
Hydrotungstite | Htu | WO3 · H2O |
Raspite | Ras | PbWO4 |
Garnet | (Fe,Mg,Ca)3Al2(SiO4)3 | |
Titanite | CaTi(SiO4)O | |
Zircon | ZrSiO4 | |
Tourmaline | Tur | Na(Mg3)Al6(Si6O18)(BO3)3(OH)3(OH) |
Diopside | CaMgSi2O6 | |
Hornblende | (Ca,Na)2–3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH,F)2 | |
Chlorite | (Mg,Fe)5Al(Si3Al)O10(OH)8 | |
Quartz | Qz | SiO2 |
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Powell, W.; Yazgan, E.; Johnson, M.; Yener, K.A.; Mathur, R. Mineralogical Analysis of the Kestel Mine: An Early Bronze Age Source of Tin Ore in the Taurus Mountains, Turkey. Minerals 2021, 11, 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010091
Powell W, Yazgan E, Johnson M, Yener KA, Mathur R. Mineralogical Analysis of the Kestel Mine: An Early Bronze Age Source of Tin Ore in the Taurus Mountains, Turkey. Minerals. 2021; 11(1):91. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010091
Chicago/Turabian StylePowell, Wayne, Evren Yazgan, Michael Johnson, K. Aslıhan Yener, and Ryan Mathur. 2021. "Mineralogical Analysis of the Kestel Mine: An Early Bronze Age Source of Tin Ore in the Taurus Mountains, Turkey" Minerals 11, no. 1: 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11010091