Tree Species as Metabolic Indicators: A Comparative Simulation in Amman, Jordan
Abstract
1. Introduction
1.1. Framing Urban Metabolism as a Diagnostic Lens for Green Infrastructure
1.2. Green Infrastructure in Amman
1.3. Amman’s Shifting Urban Tree Landscape
1.4. Research Gap and Objectives
1.5. Aim and Contribution
2. Literature Review
2.1. Urban Metabolism Scales and Urban Vegetation
2.2. Tree Species as Metabolic Infrastructure
3. Methodology
3.1. Literature-Based Ecological Profiling and Comparative Assessment
- Melia azedarach (chinaberry)—currently promoted and widely planted in Amman.
- Olea europaea (olive tree)—a native species commonly found in Jordan’s arid and semi-arid zones. It was extremely popular and found throughout neighborhoods in the early 1990–2000s.
- Ceratonia siliqua (carob)—another native, drought-resistant species suitable for urban conditions and suggested as a comparative tool for widely planted trees like chinaberry and olive trees.
- No-tree scenario—used as a baseline to compare the performance of areas without any planted tree species against those with vegetation.
3.2. ENVI-Met Microclimatic Simulation Framework
- Scenario A. Single residential plotA 20 × 20 m courtyard in a typical apartment within Amman. This scale helps measure microclimatic cooling and solar blockage. Two trees of each species were planted on each side of the sidewalk.
- Scenario B. Urban Street SegmentA 60 × 20 m layout of sidewalk with typical apartments, helping to understand the shading of facades and pedestrian comfort. Tree-lined street simulation.
- Scenario C. Neighborhood ClusterA 150 × 150 m urban block, showcasing a typical mini neighborhood within Amman, with its ability to evaluate cumulative effects on urban heat island mitigation [31], CO2 sequestration, and shading potential. This reflects the typical building heights and apartment styles within the city, with each comprising 50–55 residential buildings (10–15 m per side) that form mini-districts.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Results of Ecological Profiling and Species Comparative Assessment
4.2. ENVI-Met Simulation Results for Metabolic Performance
4.3. Interpretation of Results in the Context of Amman’s Urban Metabolism
5. Conclusions and Discussions
5.1. Interpretation of Results
5.2. Methodological and Operational Limitations
5.3. Future Research Directions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Parameter | Melia azedarach | Olea europaea | Ceratonia siliqua |
---|---|---|---|
LAI | 3.5 | 2.1 | 2.8 |
Albedo | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.18 |
Transmittance | 0.40 | 0.25 | 0.30 |
Emissivity | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
Canopy Height | 7 m | 5 m | 9 m |
Leaf Type | Deciduous | Evergreen | Evergreen |
Leaf Size (avg) | 0.15 m2 | 0.1 m2 | 0.12 m2 |
Stomatal Conductance | 280 | 160 | 140 |
Scenario | ENVI-Met Dimensions X × Y × Z | ENVI-Met Grid Size (Cells) dx, dy, dz | Domain Size | Buffer | % Domain Width |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Scenario A | 30 × 30 × 30 | 1 M, 1 M, 1 M | 20 × 20 m | 7–10 m | 35–50% |
Scenario B | 50 × 20 × 50 | 2 M, 2 M, 2 M | 60 × 20 m | 10 m | 12–17% |
Scenario C | 50 × 50 × 50 | 3 M, 2 M, 2 M | 150 × 150 m | 3 m | ~2% |
References
- Kennedy, C.; Cuddihy, J.; Engel-Yan, J. The changing metabolism of cities. J. Ind. Ecol. 2007, 11, 43–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barles, S. Urban metabolism of Paris and its region. J. Ind. Ecol. 2009, 13, 898–913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Norton, B.A.; Coutts, A.M.; Livesley, S.J.; Harris, R.J.; Hunter, A.M.; Williams, N.S. Planning for cooler cities: A framework to prioritize green infrastructure to mitigate high temperatures in urban landscapes. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 134, 127–138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Livesley, S.J.; McPherson, E.G.; Calfapietra, C. The urban forest and ecosystem services: Impacts on urban water, heat, and pollution cycles at the tree, street, and city scale. J. Environ. Qual. 2016, 45, 119–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tuffaha, A.; Sallay, Á. Street level urban metabolism as a tool for mapping urban flows in Amman’s neighborhoods. Sci. Rep. 2025, 15, 18654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- WorldData.info. Climate of Jordan. Available online: https://www.worlddata.info/asia/jordan/climate.php (accessed on 15 October 2024).
- Arab Group for the Protection of Nature (APN). 200 Trees Planted in Al Hussein Youth City—Sports City with Jordan Ahli Bank. Available online: https://www.apnature.org/en/media/news/200-trees-planted-al-hussein-youth-city-%E2%80%93-sports-city-jordan-ahli-bank (accessed on 9 January 2025).
- Bhatt, A.; Gairola, S.; Govender, Y.; Souza Filho, P. The invasive Melia azedarach in Durban (South Africa): Impacts on tree community structure. Folia Geobot. 2021, 56, 139–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Galán, C.; Cariñanos, P.; Alcázar, P.; Domínguez-Vilches, E. Airborne olive pollen counts and seasonal trends in Mediterranean cities. Aerobiologia 2007, 23, 217–225. [Google Scholar]
- Arab Group for the Protection of Nature (APN). The Green Caravan and Modern American School Collaborate to Plant 50 Melia azedarach Trees. Available online: https://www.apnature.org/en/media/news/green-caravan-and-modern-american-school-collaborate-plant-50-melia-azedarach-trees (accessed on 19 May 2024).
- Parsons, W.T.; Cuthbertson, E.G. Noxious Weeds of Australia, 2nd ed.; CSIRO Publishing: Collingwood, Australia, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Penedos, C.; Salamanca, G.; Tavares, B.; Fonseca, J.; Carreiro-Martins, P.; Rodrigues-Alves, R.; Moral de Gregorio, Á.; Valero, A.; Branco Ferreira, M. Aerobiology of olive pollen (Olea europaea L.) in the atmosphere of the Iberian Peninsula. Atmosphere 2024, 15, 1087. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolman, A. The metabolism of cities. Sci. Am. 1965, 213, 178–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kennedy, C.; Stewart, I.D.; Ibrahim, N.; Facchini, A.; Mele, R. Developing a multi-layered indicator set for urban metabolism studies in megacities. Ecol. Indic. 2014, 47, 7–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Metabolic Lab. CLEANTECH PLAYGROUND. Available online: https://www.metabolic.nl/publications/cleantech-playground (accessed on 1 January 2014).
- Tillie, N.; Klijn, O.F.E.; Borsboom, J.; Sijmons, D. Urban Metabolism: Sustainable Development in Rotterdam; Municipality of Rotterdam: Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Tuffaha, A.; Ágnes, S. Evolution of green infrastructure from an urban metabolic perspective: A comparative study within Western Europe. 4D Tájépítészeti És Kertművészeti F. 2025, 74, 24–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Waring, R.H.; Coops, N.C.; Running, S.W. Predicting satellite-derived patterns of large-scale disturbances in forests of the Pacific Northwest Region in response to recent climatic variation. Remote Sens. Environ. 2011, 115, 3554–3566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nowak, D.J.; Crane, D.E.; Stevens, J.C. Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the United States. Urban For. Urban Green. 2006, 4, 115–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Richardson, D.M.; Rejmánek, M. Trees and shrubs as invasive alien species—A global review. Divers. Distrib. 2011, 17, 788–809. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Royal Commission for Riyadh City. Melia azedarach (Bead Tree, Chinaberry, Persian Lilac, Pride of India). Riyadh Plants. Available online: https://rp2.adv3.com/en/plants/melia-azedarach (accessed on 15 October 2024).
- The Jasmine Gate. Sheltered. Available online: https://thejasminegate.wordpress.com/2018/10/04/sheltered/ (accessed on 15 October 2024).
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Understanding i-Tree: Appendix 11: Wood Density Values; General Technical Report NRS-200; Northern Research Station: Madison, WI, USA, 2021. Available online: https://www.fs.usda.gov/nrs/pubs/gtr/gtr-nrs200-2021_appendixes/gtr_nrs200-2021_appendix11.pdf (accessed on 15 October 2024).
- Texas Invasive Species Institute. Chinaberry Tree—Melia azedarach. Available online: https://www.tsusinvasives.org/home/database/melia-azedarach (accessed on 21 July 2025).
- Benjamin, M.T.; Winer, A.M. Estimating the ozone-forming potential of urban trees and shrubs. Atmos. Environ. 1998, 32, 53–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pazouki, N.; Sankian, M.; Nejadsattari, T.; Khavari-Nejad, R.-A.; Varasteh, A.-R. Oriental plane pollen allergy: Identification of allergens and cross-reactivity in Southwest Asia. Clin. Exp. Allergy 2008, 38, 3178–3185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sedghy, F.; Varasteh, A.; Sankian, M.; Moghadam, M. Interaction between air pollutants and pollen grains: Implications for allergen release and urban respiratory health. Rep. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 2018, 6, 220–230. [Google Scholar]
- Hopkins, E.; Al-Yahyai, R. Landscaping with native plants in Oman: Ecological functions and water-use implications of exotic vs. native species. Res. Gate 2015, 1097, 181–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Syrbe, R.-U.; Meier, S.; Moyzes, M.; Dworczyk, C.; Grunewald, K. Assessment and monitoring of local climate regulation in cities by green infrastructure—A national ecosystem service indicator for Germany. Land 2024, 13, 689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bruse, M.; Fleer, H. Simulating surface–plant–air interactions inside urban environments with a three-dimensional numerical model. Environ. Model. Softw. 1998, 13, 373–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arnfield, A.J. Two decades of urban climate research: A review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island. Int. J. Climatol. 2003, 23, 1–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mabberley, D.J. Melia. In Meliaceae; Flora Malesiana, Series 1; Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus: Leiden, The Netherlands, 1995; Volume 12, pp. 329–336. [Google Scholar]
- Trees and Shrubs Online. Melia azedarach. Available online: https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/melia/melia-azedarach/ (accessed on 15 October 2024).
- Trees and Shrubs Online. Olea europaea. Available online: https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/olea/olea-europaea/ (accessed on 29 May 2025).
- American University of Beirut (AUB). Ceratonia siliqua (Carob Tree, Locust Tree). Available online: https://landscapeplants.aub.edu.lb/Plants/PlantProfile/7ca11ee7-73fd-476e-b75d-2531bc6046ec (accessed on 15 October 2024).
- Global Invasive Species Database. Species Profile: Melia azedarach. Available online: http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=636 (accessed on 28 May 2025).
- North Carolina State University. Olea europaea. Available online: https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/olea-europaea/ (accessed on 15 October 2024).
- Dahmani, W.; Elaouni, N.; Abousalim, A.; Akissi, Z.L.E.; Legssyer, A.; Ziyyat, A.; Sahpaz, S. Exploring carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.): A comprehensive assessment of its characteristics, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemical aspects, and pharmacological activities. Plants 2023, 12, 3303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- University of Florida. Melia azedarach. Available online: https://plant-directory.ifas.ufl.edu/plant-directory/melia-azedarach/ (accessed on 15 October 2024).
- Padhy, P.; Varshney, C. Isoprene emission from tropical tree species. Environ. Pollut. 2005, 135, 101–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bracho-Nunez, A.; Welter, S.; Staudt, M.; Kesselmeier, J. Plant-specific volatile organic compound emission rates from young and mature leaves of Mediterranean vegetation. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 2011, 116, D16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martins-Loução, M.A.; Correia, P.J.; Romano, A. Carob: A Mediterranean resource for the future. Plants 2024, 13, 1188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khaldi, T.; Chekchaki, N.; Boumendjel, M.; Taibi, F.; Abdellaoui, M.; Messarah, M.; Boumendjel, A. Ameliorating effects of Nigella sativa oil on aggravation of inflammation, oxidative stress and cytotoxicity induced by smokeless tobacco extract in an allergic asthma model in Wistar rats. Allergol. Et Immunopathol. 2018, 46, 472–481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Thomas, P.A.; Garcia-Martí, X.; Mukassabi, T.A.; Tous, J. International biological flora: Ceratonia siliqua. J. Ecol. 2024, 112, 1885–1922. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Trait | Melia azedarach | Olea europaea | Ceratonia siliqua |
---|---|---|---|
Known name | Chinaberry | Olive | Carob |
Origin | Non-native (Asia) | Native (Mediterranean) | Native (Mediterranean) |
Height | 6–10 m [32,33] | 5–7 m [34] | 8–15 m [35] |
Root Depth | Shallow within top 0.70–1 m [36] | 4–6 m [37] | Up to 18 m [38] |
Canopy Width | 4.6–7.6 m [39] | 3–4 m [37] | 5–8 m [35] |
Isoprene Emissions | 44 nmol m−2 s−1 [25] | ~2 nmol m−2 s−1 [40] | ~0.23 nmol m−2 s−1 [41] |
Leaf Type | Deciduous | Evergreen | Evergreen |
Root Invasiveness | High (surface-level and infrastructure-damaging) [36] | Moderate [37] | Low (deep pivot system) [38] |
Heat/Drought Tolerance | High [39] | Very High [37] | Extremely High [38] |
Shade Provision | Moderate to High [33] | Low [37] | Moderate [35] |
Air Quality Contribution | Mixed (ozone-forming potential) [25] | Low (allergenic pollen) [9] | Positive (low emission, high filtration) [41,42] |
Life Span | 30–50 years [33] | Over 100 years [34] | Over 100 years [38] |
Biodiversity Value | Low [8,36] | Moderate (but allergenic to humans) [9,43] | High (supports pollinators, birds, and soil ecology) [42,44] |
Species | Scenario | Median Temp (°C) | CO2 Flux (mg/m2s) | Vapor Flux (g/kg·m·s) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Olive | A | 34.50 | −0.64 | 0.05 |
B | 34.77 | −0.66 | 0.05 | |
C | 34.85 | −0.66 | 0.05 | |
Chinaberry | A | 34.38 | −0.60 | 0.05 |
B | 34.37 | −0.64 | 0.05 | |
C | 34.22 | −0.66 | 0.05 | |
Carob | A | 34.50 | −0.01 | 0.01 |
B | 34.73 | −0.25 | 0.03 | |
C | 34.82 | −0.29 | 0.03 | |
No trees | A | 34.55 | N/A | N/A |
B | 34.86 | N/A | N/A | |
C | 35.10 | N/A | N/A |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Tuffaha, A.; Sallay, Á. Tree Species as Metabolic Indicators: A Comparative Simulation in Amman, Jordan. Land 2025, 14, 1566. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081566
Tuffaha A, Sallay Á. Tree Species as Metabolic Indicators: A Comparative Simulation in Amman, Jordan. Land. 2025; 14(8):1566. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081566
Chicago/Turabian StyleTuffaha, Anas, and Ágnes Sallay. 2025. "Tree Species as Metabolic Indicators: A Comparative Simulation in Amman, Jordan" Land 14, no. 8: 1566. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081566
APA StyleTuffaha, A., & Sallay, Á. (2025). Tree Species as Metabolic Indicators: A Comparative Simulation in Amman, Jordan. Land, 14(8), 1566. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14081566