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Volume 14
Issue 11
10.3390/land14112241
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This is an early access version, the complete PDF, HTML, and XML versions will be available soon.
Article

Optimizing Urban Green–Gray Stormwater Infrastructure Through Resilience–Cost Trade-Off: An Application in Fengxi New City, China

by
Zhaowei Tang
1,
Yanan Li
1,
Mintong Hao
1,
Sijun Huang
1,
Xin Fu
1,*,
Yuyang Mao
1 and
Yujiao Zhang
2
1
College of Landscape Architecture & Arts, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
2
Institute of Surveying, Mapping and Geoinformation in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Liuzhou 545006, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Land 2025, 14(11), 2241; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112241 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 17 October 2025 / Revised: 9 November 2025 / Accepted: 9 November 2025 / Published: 12 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure Planning and Management for Sustainable Urban Development and Quality of Life)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Accelerating urbanization and the intensifying pace of climate change have heightened the occurrence of urban pluvial flooding, threatening urban sustainability. As the preferred approach to urban stormwater management, coupled gray and green infrastructure (GI–GREI) integrates GREI’s rapid runoff conveyance with GI’s infiltration and storage capacities, and their siting and scale can affect life-cycle cost (LCC) and urban drainage system (UDS) resilience. Focusing on Fengxi New City, China, this study develops a multi-objective optimization framework for the GI–GREI system that integrates GI suitability and pipe-network importance assessments and evaluates the Pareto set through entropy-weighted TOPSIS. Across multiple rainfall return periods, the study explores optimal trade-offs between UDS resilience and LCC. Compared with the scenario where all suitable areas are implemented with GI (maximum), the TOPSIS-optimal schemes reduce total life-cycle cost (LCC) by CNY 3.762–4.298 billion (53.36% on average), rebalance cost shares between GI (42.8–47.2%) and GREI (52.8–57.2%), and enhance UDS resilience during periods of higher rainfall return (P = 20 and 50). This study provides an integrated optimization framework and practical guidance for designing cost-effective and resilient GI–GREI systems, supporting infrastructure investment decisions and climate-adaptive urban development.
Keywords: green–gray infrastructure; multi-objective optimization; life cycle cost; resilience green–gray infrastructure; multi-objective optimization; life cycle cost; resilience

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Tang, Z.; Li, Y.; Hao, M.; Huang, S.; Fu, X.; Mao, Y.; Zhang, Y. Optimizing Urban Green–Gray Stormwater Infrastructure Through Resilience–Cost Trade-Off: An Application in Fengxi New City, China. Land 2025, 14, 2241. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112241

AMA Style

Tang Z, Li Y, Hao M, Huang S, Fu X, Mao Y, Zhang Y. Optimizing Urban Green–Gray Stormwater Infrastructure Through Resilience–Cost Trade-Off: An Application in Fengxi New City, China. Land. 2025; 14(11):2241. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112241

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tang, Zhaowei, Yanan Li, Mintong Hao, Sijun Huang, Xin Fu, Yuyang Mao, and Yujiao Zhang. 2025. "Optimizing Urban Green–Gray Stormwater Infrastructure Through Resilience–Cost Trade-Off: An Application in Fengxi New City, China" Land 14, no. 11: 2241. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112241

APA Style

Tang, Z., Li, Y., Hao, M., Huang, S., Fu, X., Mao, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2025). Optimizing Urban Green–Gray Stormwater Infrastructure Through Resilience–Cost Trade-Off: An Application in Fengxi New City, China. Land, 14(11), 2241. https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112241

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