Attitudes and Behaviors toward the Use of Public and Private Green Space during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Iran
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. COVID-19 and Urban Green Spaces
1.2. The COVID-19 Pandemic in Iran
1.3. Context of the Study
1.4. Hypotheses and Aims of the Current Study
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Questionnaire
2.2. Administration of the Questionnaire
2.3. Statistical Analysis
- (i)
- feelings in a public and private green space (dependent variable) and gender, age, education, occupation, municipal information of the neighborhood, in addition to specific variables for the visitors of public (frequency of visitation during the pandemic) or private green space (size of the private green space and frequency of visitation during the pandemic as independent variables.
- (ii)
- perceived benefits or services and other aspects of public and private green spaces (each item as dependent variable) and the above-mentioned independent variables.
- (iii)
- extent to which a green space was missed (dependent ordinal variables) and gender; age; education; occupation; access to private green space (Yes = 1); frequency of visitation pre and during the pandemic, distance of public green space.
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Respondents
3.2. Use of Public Green Space before the Pandemic
3.3. During the Pandemic
3.4. Green Space Effect on Feelings
3.5. Appreciation of Ecosystem Services and Other Aspects Relative to Green Spaces
3.6. How Much the Green Area Visitation Is Missed
4. Discussion
- Behavioral change in the use and in the motivation to visit a green space during the pandemic
- 2.
- Effect of green spaces on feelings during the pandemic
- 3.
- Perception of services and benefits and other aspects related to the green spaces
- 4.
- Extent to which the green space access was missed
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Ugolini, F.; Massetti, L.; Calaza-Martínez, P.; Cariñanos, P.; Dobbs, C.; Ostoic, S.K.; Marin, A.M.; Pearlmutter, D.; Saaroni, H.; Šaulienė, I.; et al. Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the use and perceptions of urban green space: An international exploratory study. Urban For. Urban Green. 2020, 56, 126888. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sandford, A. Coronavirus: Half of Humanity now on Lockdown as 90 Countries Call for Confinement. Available online: https://www.euronews.com/2020/04/02/coronavirus-in-europe-spain-s-death-toll-hits-10-000-after-record-950-new-deaths-in-24-hou (accessed on 24 May 2021).
- Fabisiak, B.; Jankowska, A.; Kłos, R. Attitudes of Polish seniors toward the use of public space during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 8885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhu, J.; Xu, C. Sina microblog sentiment in Beijing city parks as measure of demand for urban green space during the COVID-19. Urban For. Urban Green. 2021, 58, 126913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hamidi, S.; Zandiatashbar, A. Compact development and adherence to stay-at-home order during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal investigation in the United States. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2021, 205, 103952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meagher, B.R.; Cheadle, A.D. Distant from others, but close to home: The relationship between home attachment and mental health during COVID-19. J. Environ. Psychol. 2020, 72, 101516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yamazaki, T.; Iida, A.; Hino, K.; Murayama, A.; Hiroi, U.; Terada, T.; Koizumi, H.; Yokohari, M. Use of Urban Green Spaces in the Context of Lifestyle Changes during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Tokyo. Sustainability 2021, 13, 9817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Geng, D.C.; Innes, J.; Wu, W.; Wang, G. Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on urban park visitation: A global analysis. J. For. Res. 2021, 32, 553–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lopez, B.; Kennedy, C.; Field, C.; Mcphearson, T. Who benefits from urban green spaces during times of crisis? Perception and use of urban green spaces in New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic. Urban For. Urban Green. 2021, 65, 127354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- da Schio, N.; Phillips, A.; Fransen, K.; Wolff, M.; Haase, D.; Ostoić, S.K.; De Vreese, R. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the use of and attitudes towards urban forests and green spaces: Exploring the instigators of change in Belgium. Urban For. Urban Green. 2021, 65, 127305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mell, I.; Whitten, M. Access to nature in a post covid-19 world: Opportunities for green infrastructure financing, distribution and equitability in urban planning. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ye, Y.; Qiu, H. Using urban landscape pattern to understand and evaluate infectious disease risk. Urban For. Urban Green. 2021, 62, 127126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Huerta Mayen, C.; Cafagna, G. Snapshot of the Use of Urban Green Spaces in Mexico City during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 4304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Samuelsson, K.; Barthel, S.; Colding, J.; Macassa, G.; Giusti, M. Urban nature as a source of resilience during social distancing amidst the coronavirus pandemic. OSF Prepr. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Langemeyer, J.; Madrid-Lopez, C.; Mendoza Beltran, A.; Villalba Mendez, G. Urban agriculture—A necessary pathway towards urban resilience and global sustainability? Landsc. Urban Plan. 2021, 210, 104055. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Poortinga, W.; Bird, N.; Hallingberg, B.; Phillips, R.; Williams, D. The role of perceived public and private green space in subjective health and wellbeing during and after the first peak of the COVID-19 outbreak. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2021, 211, 104092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Venter, Z.S.; Barton, D.N.; Gundersen, V.; Figari, H.; Nowell, M. Urban nature in a time of crisis: Recreational use of green space increases during the COVID-19 outbreak in Oslo, Norway. Environ. Res. Lett. 2020, 15, 104075. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaźmierczak, A. The contribution of local parks to neighbourhood social ties. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2013, 109, 31–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wright Wendel, H.E.; Zarger, R.K.; Mihelcic, J.R. Accessibility and usability: Green space preferences, perceptions, and barriers in a rapidly urbanizing city in Latin America. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2012, 107, 272–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rostami, R.; Lamit, H.; Khoshnava, S.M.; Rostami, R. Successful public places: A case study of historical Persian gardens. Urban For. Urban Green. 2016, 15, 211–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolf, I.D.; Wohlfart, T. Walking, hiking and running in parks: A multidisciplinary assessment of health and well-being benefits. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2014, 130, 89–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolch, J.R.; Byrne, J.; Newell, J.P. Urban green space, public health, and environmental justice: The challenge of making cities ‘just green enough’. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2014, 125, 234–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- King, D.K.; Litt, J.; Hale, J.; Burniece, K.M.; Ross, C. ‘The park a tree built’: Evaluating how a park development project impacted where people play. Urban For. Urban Green. 2015, 14, 293–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, A.C.K.; Maheswaran, R. The health benefits of urban green spaces: A review of the evidence. J. Public Health 2011, 33, 212–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van den Berg, A.E.; Jorgensen, A.; Wilson, E.R. Evaluating restoration in urban green spaces: Does setting type make a difference? Landsc. Urban Plan. 2014, 127, 173–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jones, R.; Tarter, R.; Ross, A.M. Greenspace interventions, stress and cortisol: A scoping review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 2802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Papangelis, G.; Tombrou, M.; Dandou, A.; Kontos, T. An urban “green planning” approach utilizing the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) modeling system. A case study of Athens, Greece. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2012, 105, 174–183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amani-Beni, M.; Zhang, B.; di Xie, G.; Xu, J. Impact of urban park’s tree, grass and waterbody on microclimate in hot summer days: A case study of Olympic Park in Beijing, China. Urban For. Urban Green. 2018, 32, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuchcik, M.; Dudek, W.; Błażejczyk, K.; Milewski, P.; Błażejczyk, A. Two faces to the greenery on housing estates–mitigating climate but aggravating allergy. A Warsaw case study. Urban For. Urban Green. 2016, 16, 170–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shanahan, D.F.; Lin, B.B.; Gaston, K.J.; Bush, R.; Fuller, R.A. Socio-economic inequalities in access to nature on public and private lands: A case study from Brisbane, Australia. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2014, 130, 14–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gidlow, C.J.; Ellis, N.J.; Bostock, S. Development of the Neighbourhood Green Space Tool (NGST). Landsc. Urban Plan. 2012, 106, 347–358. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bahrini, F.; Bell, S.; Mokhtarzadeh, S. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening The relationship between the distribution and use patterns of parks and their spatial accessibility at the city level: A case study from Tehran, Iran. Urban For. Urban Green. 2017, 27, 332–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wei, F. Greener urbanization? Changing accessibility to parks in China. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2017, 157, 542–552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Braubach, M.; Egorov, P.A.; Mudu, A.T.W. The effects of urban green space on environmental health equity and resilience to extreme weather. In Proceedings of the European Conference “Nature-Based Solutions to Climate Change in Urban Areas and Their Rural Surroundings“, Bonn, Germany, 17–19 November 2015; Kabisch, N., Stadler, J., Duffield, S., Korn, H., Bonn, A., Eds.; Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN): Bonn, Germany, 2015; pp. 63–65. [Google Scholar]
- Lin, B.B.; Gaston, K.J.; Fuller, R.A.; Wu, D.; Bush, R.; Shanahan, D.F. How green is your garden? Urban form and socio-demographic factors influence yard vegetation, visitation, and ecosystem service benefits. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2017, 157, 239–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beumer, C. Show me your garden and I will tell you how sustainable you are: Dutch citizens’ perspectives on conserving biodiversity and promoting a sustainable urban living environment through domestic gardening. Urban For. Urban Green. 2018, 30, 260–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, J.R.; Lovell, S.T. Mapping public and private spaces of urban agriculture in Chicago through the analysis of high-resolution aerial images in Google Earth. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2012, 108, 57–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, A.T.H.; Lam, T.W.L.; Cheung, L.T.O.; Fok, L. Protected areas as a space for pandemic disease adaptation: A case of COVID-19 in Hong Kong. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2021, 207, 103994. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cunningham, G.B. Physical activity and its relationship with COVID-19 cases and deaths: Analysis of U.S. counties. J. Sport Health Sci. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Polero, P.; Rebollo-Seco, C.; Adsuar, J.C.; Pérez-Gómez, J.; Rojo-Ramos, J.; Manzano-Redondo, F.; Garcia-Gordillo, M.Á.; Carlos-Vivas, J. Physical Activity Recommendations during COVID-19: Narrative Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 18, 65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Filgueira, T.O.; Castoldi, A.; Santos, L.E.R.; de Amorim, G.J.; de Sousa Fernandes, M.S.; Anastácio, W. de L. do N.; Campos, E.Z.; Santos, T.M.; Souto, F.O. The Relevance of a Physical Active Lifestyle and Physical Fitness on Immune Defense: Mitigating Disease Burden, with Focus on COVID-19 Consequences. Front. Immunol. 2021, 12, 587146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sallis, R.; Young, D.R.; Tartof, S.Y.; Sallis, J.F.; Sall, J.; Li, Q.; Smith, G.N.; Cohen, D.A. Physical inactivity is associated with a higher risk for severe COVID-19 outcomes: A study in 48 440 adult patients. Br. J. Sports Med. 2021, 55, 1099–1105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mitra, R.; Moore, S.A.; Gillespie, M.; Faulkner, G.; Vanderloo, L.M.; Chulak-Bozzer, T.; Rhodes, R.E.; Brussoni, M.; Tremblay, M.S. Healthy movement behaviours in children and youth during the COVID-19 pandemic: Exploring the role of the neighbourhood environment. Heal. Place 2020, 65, 102418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Puccinelli, P.J.; da Costa, T.S.; Seffrin, A.; de Lira, C.A.B.; Vancini, R.L.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Knechtle, B.; Rosemann, T.; Hill, L.; Andrade, M.S. Reduced level of physical activity during COVID-19 pandemic is associated with depression and anxiety levels: An internet-based survey. BMC Public Health 2021, 21, 425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bereitschaft, B.; Scheller, D. How Might the COVID-19 Pandemic Affect 21st Century Urban Design, Planning, and Development? Urban Sci. 2020, 4, 56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharifi, A.; Khavarian-Garmsir, A.R. The COVID-19 pandemic: Impacts on cities and major lessons for urban planning, design, and management. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 749, 142391. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Barbarossa, L. The post pandemic city: Challenges and opportunities for a non-motorized urban environment. An overview of Italian cases. Sustainability 2020, 12, 7172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martínez, L.; Short, J.R. The pandemic city: Urban issues in the time of covid-19. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sepe, M. Covid-19 pandemic and public spaces: Improving quality and flexibility for healthier places. URBAN Des. Int. 2021, 26, 159–173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rassouli, M.; Ashrafizadeh, H.; Shirinabadi Farahani, A.; Akbari, M.E. COVID-19 Management in Iran as One of the Most Affected Countries in the World: Advantages and Weaknesses. Front. Public Health 2020, 8, 2019–2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdoli, A. Iran, sanctions, and the COVID-19 crisis. J. Med. Econ. 2020, 23, 1461–1465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abdi, M.; Mirzaei, R. Iran without Mandatory Quarantine and with Social Distancing Strategy Against Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). Health Secur. 2020, 18, 257–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Allahyari, H.; Salehi, E. Presentation of a suitable approach for green programming of urban ways through integrative method CA-Markov: Case study—Azadi Street of Tehran, Iran. Model. Earth Syst. Environ. 2020, 6, 373–382. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ali asghar Pilehvar Spatial-geographical analysis of urbanization in Iran. Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun. 2021, 8, 63. [CrossRef]
- Kiani, A.; Javadiyan, M.; Pasban, V. Evaluation of Urban Green Spaces and their Impact on Living Quality of Citizens (Case Study: Nehbandan City, Iran). J. Civ. Eng. Urban. 2014, 4, 89–95. [Google Scholar]
- Bahriny, F.; Bell, S. Patterns of urban park use and their relationship to factors of quality: A case study of tehran, Iran. Sustain. 2020, 12, 1560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fasihi, H. Urban Parks and Their Accessibility in Tehran, Iran. Environ. Justice 2019, 12, 242–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Naseh, M.A. Birjand Local History at Early Contemporary Period; Naseh, M.A., Ed.; Institute for Iranian Contemporary Historical Studies: Tehran, Iran, 2016; ISBN 9789642834778. [Google Scholar]
- Zista, A. Master Plan of Birjand City; U.C.E.: Birjand, Iran, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Shokouhi, M.A.; Eskandari Sani, M.; Mohammadabadi, J. Strategic planning of Birjand city development with SWOT and QSPM models. Khorasan Socio-Cultural Stud. 2016, 11, 105–125. [Google Scholar]
- Aram, F.; Higueras García, E.; Solgi, E.; Mansournia, S. Urban green space cooling effect in cities. Heliyon 2019, 5, e01339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Javid, M.A. Atlas of Birjand Spatial Divisions, 1st ed.; Fakhimzadeh, H., Ed.; Municipality of Birjand: Birjand, Iran, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Vargas-Hernández, J.G.; Pallagst, K.; Zdunek-Wielgołaska, J. Urban Green Spaces as a Component of an Ecosystem. In Handbook of Engaged Sustainability; Dhiman, S., Ed.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; pp. 1–32. ISBN 978-3-319-53121-2. [Google Scholar]
- Carpentieri, G.; Guida, C.; Fevola, O.; Sgambati, S. The Covid-19 pandemic from the elderly perspective in urban areas: An evaluation of urban green areas in ten European capitals. TeMA-J. Land Use Mobil. Environ. 2020, 13, 389–408. [Google Scholar]
- Rice, L. After Covid-19: Urban design as spatial medicine. URBAN Des. Int. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roe, M. Editorial: Food and landscape. Landsc. Res. 2016, 41, 709–713. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uchiyama, Y.; Kohsaka, R. Access and use of green areas during the covid-19 pandemic: Green infrastructure management in the “new normal”. Sustainability 2020, 12, 9842. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pamukcu-Albers, P.; Ugolini, F.; La Rosa, D.; Grădinaru, S.R.; Azevedo, J.C.; Wu, J. Building green infrastructure to enhance urban resilience to climate change and pandemics. Landsc. Ecol. 2021, 36, 665–673. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cobbinah, P.B.; Erdiaw-Kwasie, M.; Adams, E.A. COVID-19: Can it transform urban planning in Africa? Cities Health 2020, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hootsuite 2021. Available online: https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-iran (accessed on 24 May 2021).
- Zista, A. Master Plan of Birjand City; U.C.E.: Birjand, Iran, 1997. [Google Scholar]
- Ebrahimzadeh, A. Birjand Parks and Green Space Organization. 2017. Available online: http://birjandpark.ir/index.php/info/tables (accessed on 10 January 2021).
- Lu, Y.; Zhao, J.; Wu, X.; Lo, S.M. Escaping to nature during a pandemic: A natural experiment in Asian cities during the COVID-19 pandemic with big social media data. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 777, 146092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sivak, C.J.; Pearson, A.L.; Hurlburt, P. Effects of vacant lots on human health: A systematic review of the evidence. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2021, 208, 104020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- WHO. Urban Planning, Environment and Health: From Evidence to Policy Action—Meeting Report. World Health Organization, 2010; p. 119. Available online: https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/114448/E93987.pdf (accessed on 24 May 2021).
- Dong, N.; Chen, J.; Zhang, S. Safety Research of Children’s Recreational Space in Shanghai Urban Parks. Procedia Eng. 2017, 198, 612–621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Groenewegen, P.P.; van den Berg, A.E.; Maas, J.; Verheij, R.A.; de Vries, S. Is a Green Residential Environment Better for Health? If So, Why? Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 2012, 102, 996–1003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carver, A.; Lorenzon, A.; Veitch, J.; Macleod, A.; Sugiyama, T. Is greenery associated with mental health among residents of aged care facilities? A systematic search and narrative review. Aging Ment. Health 2020, 24, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Massetti, L.; Petralli, M.; Napoli, M.; Brandani, G.; Orlandini, S.; Pearlmutter, D. Effects of deciduous shade trees on surface temperature and pedestrian thermal stress during summer and autumn. Int. J. Biometeorol. 2019, 63, 467–479. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Säumel, I.; Hogrefe, J.; Battisti, L.; Wachtel, T.; Larcher, F. The healthy green living room at one’s doorstep? Use and perception of residential greenery in Berlin, Germany. Urban For. Urban Green. 2021, 58, 126949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Szczepańska, A.; Pietrzyka, K. The COVID-19 epidemic in Poland and its influence on the quality of life of university students (young adults) in the context of restricted access to public spaces. J. Public Health 2021, 7, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Flouri, E.; Midouhas, E.; Joshi, H. The role of urban neighbourhood green space in children’s emotional and behavioural resilience. J. Environ. Psychol. 2014, 40, 179–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Xie, J.; Luo, S.; Furuya, K.; Sun, D. Urban parks as green buffers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sustainability 2020, 12, 6751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, J.; Chang, Z. Rethinking urban green space accessibility: Evaluating and optimizing public transportation system through social network analysis in megacities. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 143, 150–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, H.; Chen, B.; Sun, Z.; Bao, Z. Landscape perception and recreation needs in urban green space in Fuyang, Hangzhou, China. Urban For. Urban Green. 2013, 12, 44–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gong, L.; Mao, B.; Qi, Y.; Xu, C. A satisfaction analysis of the infrastructure of country parks in Beijing. Urban For. Urban Green. 2015, 14, 480–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wen, C.; Albert, C.; Von Haaren, C. Equality in access to urban green spaces: A case study in Hannover, Germany, with a focus on the elderly population. Urban For. Urban Green. 2020, 55, 126820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lennon, M. Green space and the compact city: Planning issues for a ‘new normal’. Cities Health 2020, 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grinde, B.; Patil, G.G. Biophilia: Does visual contact with nature impact on health and well-being? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2009, 6, 2332–2343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ugolini, F.; Massetti, L.; Pearlmutter, D.; Sanesi, G. Usage of urban green space and related feelings of deprivation during the COVID-19 lockdown: Lessons learned from an Italian case study. Land Use Policy 2021, 105, 105437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ulrich, R. View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science 1984, 224, 420–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Gilchrist, K.; Brown, C.; Montarzino, A. Workplace settings and wellbeing: Greenspace use and views contribute to employee wellbeing at peri-urban business sites. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 138, 32–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Birge, D.; Mandhan, S.; Qiu, W.; Berger, A.M. Potential for sustainable use of trees in hot arid regions: A case study of Emirati neighborhoods in Abu Dhabi. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2019, 190, 103577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chalmin-Pui, L.S.; Roe, J.; Griffiths, A.; Smyth, N.; Heaton, T.; Clayden, A.; Cameron, R. “It made me feel brighter in myself”—The health and well-being impacts of a residential front garden horticultural intervention. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2021, 205, 103958. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seidl, M.; Saifane, M. A green intensity index to better assess the multiple functions of urban vegetation with an application to Paris metropolitan area. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2021, 23, 15204–15224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Irvine, K.N.; Fuller, R.A.; Devine-Wright, P.; Tratalos, J.; Payne, S.R.; Warren, P.H.; Lomas, K.J.; Gaston, K.J. Ecological and Psychological Value of Urban Green Space. In Dimensions of the Sustainable City. Future City; Jenks, M., Jones, C., Eds.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2010; Volume 2, pp. 215–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chang, C.-R.; Chen, M.-C.; Su, M.-H. Natural versus human drivers of plant diversity in urban parks and the anthropogenic species-area hypotheses. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2021, 208, 104023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carrus, G.; Scopelliti, M.; Lafortezza, R.; Colangelo, G.; Ferrini, F.; Salbitano, F.; Agrimi, M.; Portoghesi, L.; Semenzato, P.; Sanesi, G. Go greener, feel better? The positive effects of biodiversity on the well-being of individuals visiting urban and peri-urban green areas. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 134, 221–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marselle, M.R.; Irvine, K.N.; Lorenzo-Arribas, A.; Warber, S.L. Does perceived restorativeness mediate the effects of perceived biodiversity and perceived naturalness on emotional well-being following group walks in nature? J. Environ. Psychol. 2016, 46, 217–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Henwood, K.; Pidgeon, N. Talk about woods and trees: Threat of urbanization, stability, and biodiversity. J. Environ. Psychol. 2001, 21, 125–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harvey, D.J.; Montgomery, L.N.; Harvey, H.; Hall, F.; Gange, A.C.; Watling, D. Psychological benefits of a biodiversity-focussed outdoor learning program for primary school children. J. Environ. Psychol. 2020, 67, 101381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hadavi, S.; Kaplan, R.; Hunter, M.C.R. Environmental affordances: A practical approach for design of nearby outdoor settings in urban residential areas. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2015, 134, 19–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mouratidis, K.; Poortinga, W. Built environment, urban vitality and social cohesion: Do vibrant neighborhoods foster strong communities? Landsc. Urban Plan. 2020, 204, 103951. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pham, T.T.H.; Labbé, D.; Lachapelle, U.; Pelletier, É. Perception of park access and park use amongst youth in Hanoi: How cultural and local context matters. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2019, 189, 156–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cameron-Faulkner, T.; Melville, J.; Gattis, M. Responding to nature: Natural environments improve parent-child communication. J. Environ. Psychol. 2018, 59, 9–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, L.; Tan, P.Y.; Diehl, J.A. A conceptual framework for studying urban green spaces effects on health. J. Urban Ecol. 2017, 3, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Putra, I.G.N.E.; Astell-Burt, T.; Cliff, D.P.; Vella, S.A.; Feng, X. Association between caregiver perceived green space quality and the development of prosocial behaviour from childhood to adolescence: Latent class trajectory and multilevel longitudinal analyses of Australian children over 10 years. J. Environ. Psychol. 2021, 74, 101579. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olszewska-Guizzo, A.; Fogel, A.; Escoffier, N.; Ho, R. Effects of COVID-19-related stay-at-home order on neuropsychophysiological response to urban spaces: Beneficial role of exposure to nature? J. Environ. Psychol. 2021, 75, 101590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bulfone, T.C.; Malekinejad, M.; Rutherford, G.W.; Razani, N. Outdoor Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and Other Respiratory Viruses: A Systematic Review. J. Infect. Dis. 2021, 223, 550–561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schipperijn, J.; Ekholm, O.; Stigsdotter, U.K.; Toftager, M.; Bentsen, P.; Kamper-Jørgensen, F.; Randrup, T.B. Factors influencing the use of green space: Results from a Danish national representative survey. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2010, 95, 130–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roe, J.J.; Ward Thompson, C.; Aspinall, P.A.; Brewer, M.J.; Duff, E.I.; Miller, D.; Mitchell, R.; Clow, A. Green space and stress: Evidence from cortisol measures in deprived urban communities. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 4086–4103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Theodorou, A.; Panno, A.; Carrus, G.; Carbone, G.A.; Massullo, C.; Imperatori, C. Stay home, stay safe, stay green: The role of gardening activities on mental health during the Covid-19 home confinement. Urban For. Urban Green. 2021, 61, 127091. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hostetler, M.; Noiseux, K. Are green residential developments attracting environmentally savvy homeowners? Landsc. Urban Plan. 2010, 94, 234–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keefer, L.A.; Landau, M.J.; Rothschild, Z.K.; Sullivan, D. Attachment to objects as compensation for close others’ perceived unreliability. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 2012, 48, 912–917. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Pre-Pandemic | During the Pandemic | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) Frequency of visitation | Count | Percentage | Count | Percentage | p-value | |
Public green space | Every day | 33 | 9% | 14 | 4% | ** |
More than once a week | 97 | 26% | 25 | 6% | *** | |
Several times a month | 117 | 31% | 33 | 8% | *** | |
Once a month | 74 | 19% | 37 | 9% | *** | |
Less than once a month | 58 | 15% | 122 | 31% | *** | |
Never | 15 | 4% | 164 | 42% | *** | |
Total | 394 | 100% | 394 | 100% | ||
Private green space | Every day | 58 | 28% | 41 | 20% | * |
More than once a week | 50 | 24% | 45 | 22% | ns | |
Several times a month | 45 | 22% | 46 | 22% | ns | |
Once a month | 18 | 9% | 21 | 10% | ns | |
Less than once a month | 31 | 15% | 35 | 17% | ns | |
Never | 7 | 3% | 21 | 10% | ** | |
Total | 209 | 100% | 209 | 100% | ||
(2) Motivation of visitation a | ||||||
Public green space | Gardening | 3 | 0.5% | 2 | 1% | ns |
Meeting people | 34 | 5% | 38 | 10% | ** | |
Observing nature | 110 | 17% | 61 | 16% | ns | |
Passing through it | 35 | 5% | 43 | 11% | *** | |
Physical exercise | 31 | 5% | 23 | 6% | ns | |
Reading | 3 | 0.5% | 1 | 0% | ns | |
Relaxing | 52 | 8% | 14 | 4% | ** | |
Staying outdoors | 32 | 5% | 39 | 10% | *** | |
Taking the dog out | 0 | 0% | 0 | 0.0% | - | |
Taking the kids outdoor | 185 | 28% | 56 | 15% | *** | |
Walking | 175 | 26% | 105 | 27% | ns | |
Total | 660 | 100.0% | 382 | 100% | ||
Private green space | Gardening | 45 | 13% | 30 | 6% | *** |
Meeting people | 2 | 1% | 21 | 4% | *** | |
Observing nature | 46 | 13% | 97 | 19% | * | |
Passing through it else | 41 | 12% | 37 | 7% | * | |
Physical exercise | 13 | 4% | 24 | 5% | ns | |
Reading | 12 | 3% | 7 | 1% | * | |
Relaxing | 65 | 19% | 82 | 16% | ns | |
Staying outdoors | 75 | 21% | 76 | 15% | * | |
Taking the dog out | 0 | 0% | 1 | 0% | - | |
Taking the kids outdoor | 39 | 11% | 97 | 19% | *** | |
Walking | 13 | 4% | 38 | 8% | * | |
Total | 351 | 100% | 510 | 100% |
Happy | Pleased | Excited (Ecstatic) | Physically Energetic | Anxious | Nervous | Tense | Frightened | Irritated | Upset | Depressed | Blue | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Public green spaces (n = 231) | More | 65% | 59% | 31% | 57% | 24% * | 11% | 10% | 13% * | 22% | 10% | 9% | 10% |
No change | 17% | 22% | 36% | 23% | 21% | 25% | 27% | 30% | 27% | 28% | 27% | 25% | |
Less | 19% | 19% | 33% | 20% | 54% | 63% | 63% | 57% | 50% | 62% | 65% | 65% | |
Avg. | 3.5 | 3.4 | 2.9 | 3.4 | 2.5 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 2.3 | 2.6 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 2.1 | |
Private green spaces (n = 188) | More | 65% | 62% | 28% | 55% | 14%* | 11% | 15% | 4% * | 14% | 14% | 12% | 10% |
No change | 17% | 19% | 43% | 25% | 19% | 23% | 17% | 30% | 26% | 17% | 21% | 19% | |
Less | 18% | 19% | 29% | 20% | 66% | 66% | 68% | 65% | 60% | 69% | 67% | 71% | |
Avg. | 3.6 | 3.5 | 2.9 | 3.4 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 2.0 | 2.3 | 2.1 | 2.1 | 2.0 |
Private Green Space (n = 209) | Public Green Space (n = 231) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
b | Std. Err. | p-Value | b | Std. Err. | p-Value | |||
Happy | Intercept | 3.101 | 0.252 | 0.000 | ||||
Greenery class a | 0.087 | 0.029 | 0.003 | |||||
Price of urban lands a | −0.076 | 0.037 | 0.038 | |||||
Pleased | Intercept | 3.048 | 0.225 | 0.000 | ||||
Greenery class a | 0.078 | 0.030 | 0.010 | |||||
Price of urban lands a | −0.096 | 0.037 | 0.010 | |||||
Excited (ecstatic) | Intercept | 2.165 | 0.367 | 0.000 | ||||
Education | 0.417 | 0.102 | 0.000 | |||||
Age | −0.210 | 0.060 | 0.001 | |||||
Physically energetic | Intercept | 2.526 | 0.449 | 0.000 | ||||
Greenery class a | 0.072 | 0.035 | 0.042 | |||||
Anxious | Intercept | 3.116 | 0.300 | 0.000 | Intercept | 2.460 | 0.247 | 0.000 |
Visit frequency of private green space during pandemic | −0.119 | 0.048 | 0.014 | Preferred for a residency | 0.606 | 0.282 | 0.033 | |
Preferred for residency a | 0.428 a | 0.212 | 0.045 | Student | 0.446 | 0.182 | 0.015 | |
Nervous | Intercept | 1.970 | 0.376 | 0.000 | Intercept | 2.375 | 0.394 | 0.000 |
Age | −0.123 | 0.057 | 0.031 | Preferred for residency a | 0.665 | 0.252 | 0.009 | |
Male | 0.344 | 0.126 | 0.007 | Greenery class a | −0.069 | 0.034 | 0.042 | |
Employee | −0.271 | 0.135 | 0.046 | Price of urban lands a | −0.533 | 0.240 | 0.027 | |
Tense | Intercept | 1.937 | 0.395 | 0.000 | ||||
Male | 0.344 | 0.132 | 0.010 | |||||
Employee | −0.307 | 0.142 | 0.031 | |||||
Price of urban lands a | 0.081 | 0.040 | 0.045 | |||||
Greenery class a | −0.063 | 0.032 | 0.049 | |||||
Upset | Intercept | 2.190 | 0.197 | 0.000 | Intercept | 2.536 | 0.214 | 0.000 |
Student | 0.364 | 0.148 | 0.015 | Preferred for residency a | 0.120 | 0.045 | 0.009 | |
Greenery class a | −0.079 | 0.031 | 0.011 | Greenery class a | −0.086 | 0.034 | 0.012 | |
Preferred for residency a | 0.100 | 0.041 | 0.015 | |||||
Frightened | Intercept | 2.518 | 0.269 | 0.000 | Intercept | 2.834 | 0.275 | 0.000 |
Preferred for residency a | 0.097 | 0.038 | 0.011 | Age | −0.143 | 0.059 | 0.017 | |
Male | 0.249 | 0.119 | 0.037 | |||||
Depressed | Intercept | 2.128 | 0.424 | 0.000 | Intercept | 2.406 | 0.245 | 0.000 |
Male | 0.343 | 0.127 | 0.007 | Preferred for residency a | 0.122 | 0.044 | 0.006 | |
Price of urban lands a | 0.090 | 0.039 | 0.020 | |||||
Greenery class a | −0.085 | 0.031 | 0.006 | |||||
Blue | Intercept | 1.941 | 0.416 | 0.000 | ||||
Male | 0.265 | 0.123 | 0.032 | |||||
Greenery class a | −0.087 | 0.030 | 0.004 | |||||
Employee | −0.322 | 0.131 | 0.015 |
Natural Value | Biodiversity | Clean Air | Comfortable Climate | Quiet/Freedom from Noise | Proximity | Cleanness | Privacy | Socialization | Security from Bad People | Safety from Contagion | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Public green space (n = 231) | Appreciated | 92% | 84% | 97% | 95% | 83% | 62% | 94% | 68% | 73% | 86% | 83% |
Avg. | 3.5 | 3.3 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.3 | 2.8 | 3.6 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.4 | 3.3 | |
Private green space (n = 183) | Appreciated | 86% | 73% | 93% | 94% | 86% | 49% | 90% | 93% | 45% | 84% | 84% |
Avg. | 3.3 | 3.0 | 3.6 | 3.6 | 3.3 | 2.5 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 2.5 | 3.3 | 3.3 | |
p value | ** | *** | ns | ns | ns | ** | * | *** | *** | ns | ns |
b | Std. Err. | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Intercept | 3.67 | 0.13 | 0 |
Male | −0.2 | 0.07 | 0.006 |
Frequency of visitation of public green space pre-pandemic | 0.11 | 0.03 | 0.0002 |
Distance of public green space | −0.06 | 0.03 | 0.032 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Khalilnezhad, M.R.; Ugolini, F.; Massetti, L. Attitudes and Behaviors toward the Use of Public and Private Green Space during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Iran. Land 2021, 10, 1085. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10101085
Khalilnezhad MR, Ugolini F, Massetti L. Attitudes and Behaviors toward the Use of Public and Private Green Space during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Iran. Land. 2021; 10(10):1085. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10101085
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhalilnezhad, Mohammad Reza, Francesca Ugolini, and Luciano Massetti. 2021. "Attitudes and Behaviors toward the Use of Public and Private Green Space during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Iran" Land 10, no. 10: 1085. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10101085