Adapting to Variable Water Supply in the Truckee-Carson River System, Western USA
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Case Study Area: The Truckee-Carson River System
2.1. Water Management
2.2. Recent Drought Conditions
3. Methods
3.1. Collaborative Modeling Research Design
3.2. Study Participants
3.3. Data Collection
3.4. Data Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Baseline Water Supply Challenges
4.2. Identified Adaptation Strategies and Adaptation Barriers
4.3. Shifts in Adaptation Strategies and Adaptation Barriers
4.3.1. Adaptation Strategy 1: Collect Science-Based Information
Adaptation Barriers
4.3.2. Adaptation Strategy 2: Explore Modifications to Water Institutions
Adaptation Barriers
4.3.3. Adaptation Strategy 3: Increase Collaboration and Communication
Adaptation Barriers
4.3.4. Adaptation Strategy 4: Enhance Water Supply
Adaptation Barriers
4.3.5. Adaptation Strategy 5: Manage Water Demand
“One change is that Carson Valley [population and economic] growth will replace agriculture. This will reduce your opportunity to use irrigation to change water law. This hardens your [water] demand. In the Truckee Meadows, they have already turned the agriculture [use] to residential [use]. But turning to residential provides different opportunities for sustainable water use, especially regarding consumptive use since we are no longer farming”.
Adaptation Barriers
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
- Define a normal year. What water supply challenges do you face in these years?
- Define a moderate and severe drought. How has the current drought challenged your daily operations?
- What are you doing to adapt to current drought conditions?
- As you strive to implement these strategies, do barriers exist? If so, please explain.
Appendix B
Variable | Baseline Water Supply Challenges | Adaptation Strategies | Adaptation Barriers |
---|---|---|---|
Categories | Water scarcity Water delivery Existing water institutions | Collect science-based information Explore modifications to water institutions Increase collaboration and communication Enhance water supply Manage water demand | Climate uncertainty Existing water institutions Lack of coordination Water delivery Water scarcity |
Coding Stage | Baseline Water Supply Challenges | Adaptation Strategies | Adaptation Barriers | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Raw Data | Transcript | “We need better conjunctive use programs to manage water.” | “We’re firming up sources of supply to meet late summer demand.” | “What conditions are we planning for?” |
Open Coding | Sub-Category | Increase programs for managing water | Seeking new sources of water | Climate is too variable to plan |
Axial Coding | Category | Existing water institutions | Enhance water supply | Climate uncertainty |
Selective Coding | Theme | Continued warmer drought conditions challenge municipal and industrial water managers “infinite” supply of water |
References
- Bond, N.A.; Cronin, M.F.; Freeland, H.; Mantua, N. Causes and impacts of the 2014 warm anomaly in the NE Pacific. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2015, 42, 3414–3420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cayan, D.R.; Dettinger, M.D.; Pierce, D.; Das, T.; Knowles, N.; Ralph, F.M.; Sumargo, E. Natural Variability, Anthropogenic Climate Change, and Impacts on Water Availability and Flood Extremes in the Western United States. In Water Policy and Planning in a Variable and Changing Climate; Miller, K.A., Hamlet, A.F., Kenney, D.S., Redmond, K.T., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2016; pp. 17–42. [Google Scholar]
- Belmecheri, S.; Babst, F.; Wahl, E.R.; Stahle, D.W.; Trouet, V. Multi-century evaluation of Sierra Nevada snowpack. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2016, 6, 2–3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cook, B.I.; Ault, T.R.; Smerdon, J.E. Unprecedented 21st century drought risk in the American Southwest and Central Plains. Sci. Adv. 2015, 1, 1–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Harpold, A.; Dettinger, M.; Rajagopal, S. Defining Snow Drought and Why It Matters. Eos 2017, 98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dettinger, M.D.; Udall, B.; Georgakakos, A. Western water and climate change. Ecol. Appl. 2015, 25, 2069–2093. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Trujillo, E.; Molotch, N. Snowpack regimes of the Western United States. Water Resour. Res. 2014, 527, 137–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mote, P.W.; Hamlet, A.F.; Clark, M.P.; Lettenmaier, D.P. Declining Mountain Snowpack in Western North America. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 2005, 86, 39–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fritze, H.; Stewart, I.T.; Pebesma, E. Shifts in Western North American Snowmelt Runoff Regimes for the Recent Warm Decades. J. Hydrometeorol. 2011, 12, 989–1006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Regonda, S.K.; Rajagopalan, B.; Clark, M.; Pitlick, J. Seasonal Cycle Shifts in Hydroclimatology over the Western United States. J. Clim. 2005, 18, 372–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knowles, N.; Dettinger, M.D.; Cayan, D.R. Trends in snowfall versus rainfall in the western United States. J. Clim. 2006, 19, 4545–4559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mankin, J.S.; Viviroli, D.; Singh, D.; Hoekstra, A.Y.; Diffenbaugh, N.S. The potential for snow to supply human water demand in the present and future. Environ. Res. Lett. 2015, 10, 114016. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Godsey, S.E.; Kirchner, J.W.; Tague, C.L. Effects of changes in winter snowpacks on summer low flows: Case studies in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA. Hydrol. Process. 2014, 28, 5048–5064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barnhart, T.B.; Molotch, N.P.; Livneh, B.; Harpold, A.A.; Knowles, J.F.; Schneider, D. Snowmelt rate dictates streamflow. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2016, 43, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jasechko, S.; Birks, S.J.; Gleeson, T.; Wada, Y.; Fawcett, P.J.; Sharp, Z.D.; McDonnell, J.J.; Welker, J.M. The pronounced seasonality of global groundwater recharge. Water Resour. Res. 2014, 50, 8845–8867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harpold, A.A. Diverging sensitivity of soil water stress to changing snowmelt timing in the Western U.S. Adv. Water Resour. 2016, 92, 116–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Georgakakos, A.; Fleming, P.; Dettinger, M.; Peters-Lidard, C.; Richmond, T.; Reckhow, K.; White, K.; Yates, D. Chapter 3 Water Resources; Melillo, J.M., Richmond, T.C., Yohe, G.W., Eds.; U.S. Global Change Research Program: Washington, DC, USA, 2014.
- Das, T.; Hidalgo, H.G.; Pierce, D.W.; Barnett, T.P.; Dettinger, M.D.; Cayan, D.R.; Bonfils, C.; Bala, G.; Mirin, A. Structure and Detectability of Trends in Hydrological Measures over the Western United States. J. Hydrometeorol. 2009, 10, 871–892. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dettinger, M.D. Atmospheric Rivers as Drought Busters on the U.S. West Coast. J. Hydrometeorol. 2013, 14, 1721–1732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hatchett, B.J.; Boyle, D.P.; Putnam, A.E.; Bassett, S.D. Placing the 2012–2015 California-Nevada drought into a paleoclimatic context: Insights from Walker Lake, California-Nevada, USA. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2015, 42, 8632–8640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Howells, M.; Hermann, S.; Welsch, M.; Bazilian, M.; Segerström, R.; Alfstad, T.; Gielen, D.; Rogner, H.; Fischer, G.; van Velthuizen, H.; et al. Integrated analysis of climate change, land-use, energy and water strategies. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2013, 3, 621–626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diffenbaugh, N.S.; Swain, D.L.; Touma, D. Anthropogenic warming has increased drought risk in California. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2015, 112, 3931–3936. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Annex II: Glossary. In Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Mach, K.J., Planton, S., von Stechow, C., Eds.; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Geneva, Switzerland, 2014; pp. 117–130. [Google Scholar]
- Berrang-Ford, L.; Ford, J.D.; Paterson, J. Are we adapting to climate change? Glob. Environ. Chang. 2011, 21, 25–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Keskitalo, E.C.H.; Westerhoff, L.; Juhola, S. Agenda-setting on the environment: The development of climate change adaptation as an issue in European states. Environ. Policy Gov. 2012, 22, 381–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coleman, J.M.A.; Sosa-Rodriguez, F.S.; Mortsch, L.D.; Deadman, P.J. Assessing stakeholder impacts and adaptation to low water-levels: The Trent-Severn waterway. Clim. Chang. 2016, 134, 115–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haden, V.R.; Niles, M.T.; Lubell, M.; Perlman, J.; Jackson, L.E. Global and Local Concerns: What Attitudes and Beliefs Motivate Farmers to Mitigate and Adapt to Climate Change? PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e52882. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jackson, L.E.; Wheeler, S.M.; Hollander, A.D.; O’Geen, A.T.; Orlove, B.S.; Six, J.; Sumner, D.A.; Santos-Martin, F.; Kramer, J.B.; Horwath, W.R.; et al. Case study on potential agricultural responses to climate change in a California landscape. Clim. Chang. 2011, 109, S407–S427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Engle, N.L. Adaptation Bridges and Barriers in Water Planning and Management: Insight from Recent Extreme Droughts in Arizona and Georgia. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2012, 48, 1139–1150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eisenack, K.; Moser, S.C.; Hoffmann, E.; Klein, R.J.T.; Oberlack, C.; Pechan, A.; Rotter, M.; Termeer, C.J.A.M. Explaining and overcoming barriers to climate change adaptation. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2014, 4, 867–872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burnham, M.; Ma, Z.; Endter-Wada, J.; Bardsley, T. Water Management Decision Making in the Face of Multiple Forms of Uncertainty and Risk. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2016, 52, 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kates, R.W.; Travis, W.R.; Wilbanks, T.J. Transformational adaptation when incremental adaptations to climate change are insufficient. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2012, 109, 7156–7161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gallaher, S.; Heikkila, T.; Patterson, W.; Frank, V.; Weible, C. Adapting water policy tools to new issues: Lessons from Colorado’s experience over time. Water Policy 2013, 15, 43–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bierbaum, R.; Smith, J.B.; Lee, A.; Blair, M.; Carter, L.; Chapin, F.S.; Fleming, P.; Ruffo, S.; Stults, M.; McNeeley, S.; et al. A comprehensive review of climate adaptation in the United States: More than before, but less than needed. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Chang. 2013, 18, 361–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Global Commons Institute. Climate Uncertainty and Policymaking: A Policy Maker’s View; All Party Parliamentary Group on Climate Change: London, UK, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- McNeeley, S.M. A “toad’s eye” view of drought: Regional socio-natural vulnerability and responses in 2002 in Northwest Colorado. Reg. Environ. Chang. 2014, 14, 1451–1461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pulwarty, R.S.; Maia, R. Adaptation Challenges in Complex Rivers Around the World: The Guadiana and the Colorado Basins. Water Resour. Manag. 2015, 29, 273–293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nava, L.F.; Brown, C.; Demeter, K.; Lasserre, F.; Milanés-Murcia, M.; Mumme, S.; Sandoval-Solis, S. Existing opportunities to adapt the Rio Grande/Bravo basin water resources allocation framework. Water 2016, 8, 291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- López-Hoffman, L.; Breshears, D.D.; Allen, C.D.; Miller, M.L. Key landscape ecology metrics for assessing climate change adaptation options: Rate of change and patchiness of impacts. Ecosphere 2013, 4, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Loon, A.F.; Gleeson, T.; Clark, J.; Van Dijk, A.I.J.M.; Stahl, K.; Hannaford, J.; Di Baldassarre, G.; Teuling, A.J.; Tallaksen, L.M.; Uijlenhoet, R.; et al. Drought in the Anthropocene. Nat. Geosci. 2016, 9, 89–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stoutenborough, J.W.; Vedlitz, A. Public attitudes toward water management and drought in the United States. Water Resour. Manag. 2014, 28, 697–714. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adger, W.N.; Dessai, S.; Goulden, M.; Hulme, M.; Lorenzoni, I.; Nelson, D.R.; Naess, L.O.; Wolf, J.; Wreford, A. Are there social limits to adaptation to climate change? Clim. Chang. 2009, 93, 335–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moser, S.C.; Ekstrom, J.A. A framework to diagnose barriers to climate change adaptation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 22026–22031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Parris, A. Climate in Context: Science and Society Partnering for Adaptation, 1st ed.; Parris, A.S., Garfin, G.M., Dow, K., Meyer, R., Close, S.L., Eds.; John Wiley & Sons Ltd: West Sussex, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Beall King, A.; Thornton, M. Staying the Course: Collaborative Modeling to Support Adaptive and Resilient Water Resource Governance in the Inland Northwest. Water 2016, 8, 232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reed, M.S. Stakeholder participation for environmental management: A literature review. Biol. Conserv. 2008, 141, 2417–2431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meadow, A.M.; Ferguson, D.B.; Guido, Z.; Horangic, A.; Owen, G.; Wall, T. Moving Toward the Deliberate Co-Production of Climate Science Knowledge. Weather Clim. Soc. 2015, 7, 179–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adger, W.N.; Arnell, N.W.; Tompkins, E.L. Successful adaptation to climate change across scales. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2005, 15, 77–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barnett, J.; Graham, S.; Mortreux, C.; Fincher, R.; Waters, E.; Hurlimann, A. A local coastal adaptation pathway. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2014, 4, 1103–1108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ekstrom, J.A.; Moser, S.C. Identifying and overcoming barriers in urban adaptation efforts to climate change: Case study findings from the San Francisco Bay Area, California, USA. Urban Clim. 2014, 9, 54–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singletary, L.; Sterle, K. Collaborative Modeling to Assess Drought Resiliency of Snow-fed River Dependent Communities in the Western United States: A Case Study in the Truckee-Carson River System. Water 2017, 9, 99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bureau of Reclamation (BOR). Truckee Basin Study; Bureau of Reclamation: Washington, DC, USA, 2015.
- Wilds, L.J. Water Politics in Northern Nevada: A Century of Struggle, 2nd ed.; University of Nevada Press: Reno, NV, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Nevada Division of Water Planning (NDWP). Nevada State Water Plan; Nevada Division of Water Planning: Carson City, NV, USA, 1999.
- Truckee Meadows Water Authority (TMWA) Where Does TMWA Get Their Water Supply? Available online: http://tmwa.com/article/where-does-tmwa-get-their-water-supply/ (accessed on 1 November 2016).
- Horton, G. A Chronological History of Lake Tahoe and the Truckee River and Related Water Issues: A Publication in the Nevada Water Basin Information and Chronology Series; Division of Water Planning: Carson City, NV, USA, 1997.
- Mihevc, T.; Pohll, G.; Niswonger, R.; Stevick, E. Truckee Canal Seepage Analysis in the Fernley/Wadsworth Area; University and Community College System of Nevada: Reno, NV, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Cobourn, J. An Introduction to Our Home Watershed: The Carson River Basin (FS-01-85); The Southwestern Naturalist: Reno, NV, USA, 2001. [Google Scholar]
- Carson City Public Works (CCPW) Carson City: Daily Water Supply and Demand. Available online: http://www.carson.org/government/departments-g-z/public-works/water/daily-water-supply-demand (accessed on 14 February 2017).
- Townley, J.M. Turn This Water Into Gold: The Story of The Newlands Project, 2nd ed.; Nevada Historical Society: Reno, NV, USA, 1998. [Google Scholar]
- Kleppe, J.A.; Brothers, D.S.; Kent, G.M.; Biondi, F.; Jensen, S.; Driscoll, N.W. Duration and severity of Medieval drought in the Lake Tahoe Basin. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2011, 30, 3269–3279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kahil, M.T.; Dinar, A.; Albiac, J. Modeling water scarcity and droughts for policy adaptation to climate change in arid and semiarid regions. J. Hydrol. 2015, 522, 95–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) Nevada Water Supply Outlook Reports. Available online: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/nv/snow/ (accessed on 17 September 2017).
- Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS). Nevada Water Supply Outlook Report April 1, 2015; Natural Resource Conservation Service: Reno, NV, USA, 2015.
- Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) Natural Resource Conservation Service Basin Snowpack Graphs. Available online: https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/nv/snow/products/?cid=nrcseprd1298705 (accessed on 9 September 2017).
- NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. State of the Climate: National Overview for March 2015; NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information: Asheville, NC, USA, 2015.
- Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS). Nevada Water Supply Outlook Report May 1, 2015; Natural Resource Conservation Service: Reno, NV, USA, 2015.
- Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS). Nevada Water Supply Outlook Report April 1, 2016; Natural Resource Conservation Service: Reno, NV, USA, 2016.
- Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS). Nevada Water Supply Outlook Report March 1, 2016; Natural Resource Conservation Service: Reno, NV, USA, 2016.
- Nevada State Climate Office. Quarterly Report and Outlook April–June 2016; Nevada State Climate Office: Reno, NV, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS). Nevada Water Supply Outlook Report May 1, 2016; Natural Resource Conservation Service: Reno, NV, USA, 2016.
- NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. State of the Climate: Drought for Annual 2016; NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information: Asheville, NC, USA, 2017.
- Langsdale, S.; Beall, A.; Bourget, E.; Hagen, E.; Kudlas, S.; Palmer, R.; Tate, D.; Werick, W. Collaborative modeling for decision support in water resources: Principles and best practices. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2013, 49, 629–638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reed, M.S.; Graves, A.; Dandy, N.; Posthumus, H.; Hubacek, K.; Morris, J.; Prell, C.; Quinn, C.H.; Stringer, L.C. Who’s in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management. J. Environ. Manag. 2009, 90, 1933–1949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Prell, C.; Hubacek, K.; Reed, M. Stakeholder Analysis and Social Network Analysis in Natural Resource Management. Soc. Nat. Resour. 2009, 22, 501–518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaplowitz, M.D.; Hoehn, J.P. Do focus groups and individual interviews reveal the same information for natural resource valuation? Ecol. Econ. 2001, 36, 237–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krueger, R.A.; Casey, M.A. Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research, 5th ed.; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Rossman, G.B.; Rallis, S.F. An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Learning in the Field, 4th ed.; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Singletary, L.; Sterle, K.; Simpson, K. Assessing the Climate Resiliency and Adaptive Capacity of the Truckee-Carson River System: Results of a Survey of Local Organizations (SP-16-03); University of Nevada Cooperative Extension: Reno, NV, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Sandelowski, M. Whatever happened to qualitative description? Res. Nurs. Health 2000, 23, 334–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Onwuegbuzie, A.J.; Dickinson, W.B.; Leech, N.L.; Zoran, A.G. A Qualitative Framework for Collecting and Analyzing Data in Focus Group Research. Int. J. Qual. Methods 2009, 8, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Glaser, B.G.; Strauss, A.L. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research; Routledge: Abingdon-on-Thames, UK, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- Thorne, S. Interpretive Description: Qualitative Research for Applied Practice, 2nd ed.; Routledge: Abingdon-on-Thames, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Strauss, A.; Corbin, J. Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques; SAGE Publications, Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Miles, M.B.; Huberman, A.M.; Saldana, J. Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook, 3rd ed.; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Kurasaki, K.S. Intercoder Reliability for Validating Conclusions Drawn from Open-Ended Interview Data. Field Methods 2000, 12, 179–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Economic Development Authority of Western Nevada (EDAWN). Northern Nevada Regional Growth Study 2015–2019; Economic Development Authority of Western Nevada: Reno, NV, USA, 2015.
- Jenni, K.; Graves, D.; Hardiman, J.; Hatten, J.; Mastin, M.; Mesa, M.; Montag, J.; Nieman, T.; Voss, F.; Maule, A. Identifying stakeholder-relevant climate change impacts: A case study in the Yakima River Basin, Washington, USA. Clim. Chang. 2014, 124, 371–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Endter-Wada, J.; Selfa, T.; Welsh, L.W. Hydrologic Interdependencies and Human Cooperation: The Process of Adapting to Droughts. Weather Clim. Soc. 2009, 1, 54–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sandoval-Solis, S.; Teasley, R.L.; Mckinney, D.C.; Thomas, G.A.; Patiño-Gomez, C. Collaborative Modeling to Evaluate Water Management Scenarios in the Rio Grande Basin. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 2013, 49, 639–653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lach, D.; Rayner, S.; Ingram, H. Taming the waters: Strategies to domesticate the wicked problems of water resource management. Int. J. Water 2005, 3, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wehlage, G. The Purpose of Generalization in Field-Study Research. In A Study of Schooling: Field-Based Methodologies in Educational Research and Education; Popkewitz, T., Tabachnick, R., Eds.; Praeger: New York, NY, USA, 1981; pp. 211–226. [Google Scholar]
- Creswell, J.W.; Poth, C.N. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches, 4th ed.; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, G.-E.; Rollins, K.; Singletary, L. An Empirical Analysis of Water Allocation Efficiency through the Prior Appropriation Doctrine: A Case Study in the Carson River Valley, Nevada. In Proceedings of the Agricultural and Applied Economics Association (AAEA) Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL, USA, 30 July–1 August 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Sterle, K.; Singletary, L.; Pohll, G. Collaboratively Modeling Water Resources in the Truckee-Carson River System (SP-17-04); University of Nevada Cooperative Extension: Reno, NV, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Sterle, K.; Singletary, L.; Rajagopal, S.; Jose, L.; Coors, S.; Pohll, G.; Thomas, J. Adapting to Earlier Snowmelt through Reservoir Reoperation. In Proceedings of the 2017 Annual Conference of the Italian Society for Climate Sciences (SISC), Bologna, Italy, 26–27 October 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Morway, E.D.; Niswonger, R.G.; Triana, E. Toward improved simulation of river operations through integration with a hydrologic model. Environ. Model. Softw. 2016, 82, 255–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Niswonger, R.G.; Morway, E.D.; Triana, E.; Justin, L. Huntington Managed Aquifer Recharge through Off-Season Irrigation in Agricultural Regions. Water Resour. Res. 2017, 53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dai, A. Drought under global warming: A review. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Clim. Chang. 2011, 2, 45–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS). Nevada Water Supply Outlook Report April 1, 2017; Natural Resource Conservation Service: Reno, NV, USA, 2017.
Month | 2015 | 2016 |
---|---|---|
January | 39–56% | 106–121% |
February | 18–29% | 114–130% |
March | 22–38% | 89–96% |
April | 2–15% | 106–115% |
May | 0–8% | 106–116% |
Water Use | Example Organizations | Stakeholder Affiliate Group Organizations |
---|---|---|
Municipal and Industrial | Utility districts, water purveyors, wastewater treatment facilities, public works | Truckee Meadows Water Authority (#4) Carson Water Subconservancy District (#9) City of Fernley (#11) |
Agricultural | Irrigation districts, water purveyors, water right holders, county government, tribal communities | Washoe Tribe (#7) Carson Valley Conservation District (#8) Truckee-Carson Irrigation District (#10) |
Environmental | Conservation districts, watershed restoration, wildlife protection, land management, tribal communities | The Nature Conservancy (Truckee and Carson River Projects) (#3) Stillwater National Wildlife Refuge (#5) Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe (#6) Fallon Paiute-Shoshone Tribe (#12) |
Regulatory | Enforcement of prior appropriation based institutions, river operations, and land-use | Nevada Division of Water Resources (#1) Tahoe Regional Planning Agency (#2) |
Drought Type | Municipal and Industrial | Agricultural | Environmental | Regulatory |
---|---|---|---|---|
Moderate drought | 10–50% allocation 1–3 years | 40–90% allocation 2–4 years | 30–75% allocation 2–3 years | As indicated by the U.S. Drought Monitor |
Severe drought | 5–20% allocation 2–10 years | 20–50% allocation 1–4 years | 10–50% allocation 3–5 years | As indicated by the U.S. Drought Monitor Lake Tahoe drops below the natural rim, preventing outflow Groundwater levels drop 12–14 feet |
Adaptation Strategy | Municipal and Industrial | Agricultural | Environmental | Regulatory |
---|---|---|---|---|
Collect science-based information | Increase groundwater monitoring; project population and economic growth | Understand relationship between groundwater pumping and surface water flows | Monitor surface water flows, water quality, and ecosystem health; assess riparian area function | Support research efforts to inform decision-making; fund new science investigations |
Explore modifications to water institutions | Conjunctively manage surface and groundwater; modify rate structures to sustain revenue | Allow winter and/or earlier irrigation season; request expedited temporary changes in place of water use and point of diversion | Increase flexible water use; revisit existing environmental permitting and regulations | Facilitate temporary changes in place of water use and point of diversion; explore shifts in operational dates based on historical snowmelt and streamflow timing |
Increase collaboration and communication | Coordinate local and regional meetings; devise regional-scale adaptation | Work with other irrigators to devise multi-farm improvements | Gather local managers’ input on watershed health | Facilitate cooperation among local communities; participate in regional climate initiatives |
Enhance water supply | Explore groundwater sources; build storage, delivery, and treatment infrastructure | Repair delivery infrastructure to optimize irrigation supply | Increase drainage through forest thinning; restore natural meadows | Support managers’ strategies to enhance supply |
Manage water demand | Enforce conservation mandates; develop regional conservation plans | Diversify crops; fallow marginal lands; deficit irrigate | Prioritize restoration projects least resilient to drought | Support managers’ strategies to manage demand |
Adaptation Barrier | Definition |
---|---|
Climate uncertainty | Highly uncertain and variable climate conditions impede adaptation efforts |
Existing water institutions | Prior appropriation lacks flexibility to adequately support adaptation |
Lack of coordination | Lack of stakeholder coordination inhibits regional-scale adaptation |
Water scarcity | Overall scarce water supply prevents adaptation |
Water delivery | Lack of infrastructure, and/or antiquated and earthen delivery networks create inefficiencies |
© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Sterle, K.; Singletary, L. Adapting to Variable Water Supply in the Truckee-Carson River System, Western USA. Water 2017, 9, 768. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9100768
Sterle K, Singletary L. Adapting to Variable Water Supply in the Truckee-Carson River System, Western USA. Water. 2017; 9(10):768. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9100768
Chicago/Turabian StyleSterle, Kelley, and Loretta Singletary. 2017. "Adapting to Variable Water Supply in the Truckee-Carson River System, Western USA" Water 9, no. 10: 768. https://doi.org/10.3390/w9100768