Intermittent Domestic Water Supply: A Critical Review and Analysis of Causal-Consequential Pathways
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
3. Results
- Low prices → low utility profit/cost recovery
- Network stretched beyond capacity → water rationing by utility
- Water utility has insufficient funds to perform job → poor data management
- Private water vendors → low utility profit/cost recovery
4. Discussion
- 1)
- Predictable Intermittency: supply characterized by water shut-offs that occur generally within a predictable and anticipated schedule, and with relatively constant water pressure during each delivery. The schedule can be on time scales of days or longer. With sufficient water storage, intermittent supply can resemble continuous supply.Example: Neighborhood A receives water between 7:00 and 11:00 A.M. every day, and Neighborhood B receives water on Mondays, Wednesdays and Saturdays between 1:00 and 9:00 P.M. Rooftop storage tanks hold sufficient water to ensure that the taps in the house will always run.
- 2)
- Irregular Intermittency: intermittent supply arriving at unknown intervals within short time periods of no more than a few days. Consumers can expect to receive a certain quantity of water within the unit time frame, although they cannot anticipate precisely when the water will arrive. With appropriate storage, irregular intermittency can resemble continuous supply, but requires more attention from household residents, costing them their time.Example: Neighborhood C receives 800 liters/household/day, and Neighborhood D receives 1200 liters/household/week. The rooftop storage tanks in both neighborhoods hold water to ensure that the taps in the house will always run, but residents must sometimes get up at night or be at home during the day to turn on pumps while water is running through the supply pipes.
- 3)
- Unreliable Intermittency: intermittent supply characterized by uncertain delivery time and the risk of insufficient water quantity, often exacerbated by limited storage and long periods of non-delivery. Delivery is inconsistent and the consumer must make choices under uncertainty, requiring greater behavioral, emotional and physical defenses against to cope with shortages. Intermittent supply with inconsistent water pressure may manifest as unreliable supply.Example: In Neighborhood E, the water came for two hours a week ago, and no one knows when it will come again. The residents are depleting the reserves in their water storage, and will soon need to decide whether invest in supplemental sources from private vendors, which are much more expensive, or hope that the water will come. Sometimes their taps run dry. “The greatest problems may be felt when discontinuity is frequent, but very unpredictable.” [57].
5. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Number of Studies Identified | 129 |
---|---|
Empirical case studies | 109 |
Type of Article: | |
Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles | 115 |
Conference Proceedings | 7 |
Books | 4 |
Book Sections | 3 |
Source of Water: 1 | |
Piped network water | 119 |
Well water | 24 |
Private water vendors | 18 |
Other 2 | 10 |
Causal Condition in Pathway | Category of Condition | Consequential Condition(s) in Pathway |
---|---|---|
Access inequality | Capacity Constraint |
|
Broadest network distribution prioritized | Local Governance | |
Consumers overdraw | Consumer Response | |
Coping mechanisms among the most impoverished are not observed or understood | Local Governance | |
Demand–supply gap widens | Large-Scale Trend |
|
Development | Large-Scale Trend |
|
Electricity blackouts | Capacity Constraint | |
Funders prefer new construction over improvements | Local Governance |
|
Government corruption/power structures that prioritize privilege | Local Governance |
|
Higher costs to run system | Capacity Constraint | |
Hydrological regime changes (e.g., climate change, anthropomorphic change) | Large-Scale Trend | |
Inadequate water delivered to households | Capacity Constraint | |
Increased population | Large-Scale Trend | |
Increased water demand | Large-Scale Trend |
|
Insufficient metering | Capacity Constraint | |
Intermittent water supply | Capacity Constraint | |
Leaks in system | Capacity Constraint | |
Less willingness to pay for municipal water | Consumer Response | |
Local resource depletion | Local Governance | |
Low consumer confidence/satisfaction | Consumer Response |
|
Low prices | Local Governance |
|
Low utility profit/cost recovery | Capacity Constraint |
|
Network expansions beyond original plan/service | Capacity Constraint | |
Network stretched beyond capacity to deliver continuous supply | Capacity Constraint |
|
Policies do not address intermittency | Local Governance |
|
Political misjudgments of progress indicators | Local Governance | |
Politicians do not believe the poor are willing to pay | Local Governance |
|
Poor utility data management | Capacity Constraint | |
Poor system conditions | Capacity Constraint | |
Poor water quality | Health |
|
Poor water utility service | Capacity Constraint | |
Pressure surges in system | Capacity Constraint | |
Private connections/illegal connections | Consumer Response | |
Private investment in water infrastructure | Consumer Response |
|
Private storage | Consumer Response | |
Private water vendors | Consumer Response |
|
Private wells | Consumer Response |
|
Relying on personal networks to obtain water | Consumer Response |
|
Suffering/Interpersonal conflict | Consumer Response |
|
Time costs to consumers | Consumer Response | |
Users frame their activities by water | Consumer Response | |
Utility mismanagement of resources | Capacity Constraint |
|
Water conservation not encouraged | Local Governance | |
Water is wasted by consumers | Consumer Response |
|
Water losses/less water in system | Capacity Constraint |
|
Water rationing by utility | Local Governance | |
Water utility has insufficient funds to perform job | Capacity Constraint |
|
Causes | Consequences | Total Consequential Pathways | % Inter-Category Consequences | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Capacity Constraints | Consumer Response | Large-Scale Trend | Health | Local Governance | Inter-Category Total | |||
Capacity Constraints | 28 | 9 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 16 | 44 | 36.4 |
Consumer Response | 10 | 15 | 3 | 2 | 15 | 30 | 50.0 | |
Large-Scale Trend | 3 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 8 | 50.0 | ||
Health | 2 | 2 | 2 | 100.0 | ||||
Local Governance | 9 | 2 | 1 | 10 | 12 | 22 | 55.5 | |
Inter-Category Total | 22 | 13 | 2 | 5 | 7 | 47 | ||
Total Causal Pathways | 50 | 28 | 6 | 5 | 17 | |||
% Inter-category causes | 44.0 | 46.4 | 33.3 | 100.0 | 41.2 |
Influential Condition | Ratio | Category of Influential Condition | Condition(s) Acting as Causes of Influential Condition | Category of Causal Condition |
---|---|---|---|---|
Broadest network distribution prioritized | 4 | Local Governance | Political misjudgments of progress indicators | Local Governance |
Private connections/illegal connections | 4 | Consumer Response | Private investment in water infrastructure | Consumer Response |
Private storage | 4 | Consumer Response | ||
Policies do not address intermittency | 2.5 | Local Governance | Poor data management | Capacity Constraint |
Government corruption/power structures that prioritize privilege | Local Governance |
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Galaitsi, S.E.; Russell, R.; Bishara, A.; Durant, J.L.; Bogle, J.; Huber-Lee, A. Intermittent Domestic Water Supply: A Critical Review and Analysis of Causal-Consequential Pathways. Water 2016, 8, 274. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8070274
Galaitsi SE, Russell R, Bishara A, Durant JL, Bogle J, Huber-Lee A. Intermittent Domestic Water Supply: A Critical Review and Analysis of Causal-Consequential Pathways. Water. 2016; 8(7):274. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8070274
Chicago/Turabian StyleGalaitsi, S. E., Robert Russell, Amahl Bishara, John L. Durant, Jennifer Bogle, and Annette Huber-Lee. 2016. "Intermittent Domestic Water Supply: A Critical Review and Analysis of Causal-Consequential Pathways" Water 8, no. 7: 274. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8070274