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Article

Water: The Central Theme of the Proposed Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor of Northwestern Mexico

by
Diana Luque-Agraz
1,
Martha A. Flores-Cuamea
2,
Alessia Kachadourian-Marras
3,
Lara Cornejo-Denman
4 and
Arthur D. Murphy
5,*
1
Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Hermosillo 83304, Mexico
2
Secretaría de Ciencia, Humanidades, Tecnología e Innovación—Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Hermosillo 83304, Mexico
3
U-Flows S.C., Cuernavaca 62520, Mexico
4
Ecología para la Conservación del Gran Desierto A.C., Hermosillo 83000, Mexico
5
Department of Anthropology, The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27402, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2025, 17(15), 2227; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17152227
Submission received: 21 June 2025 / Revised: 20 July 2025 / Accepted: 23 July 2025 / Published: 26 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

The Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES) is made up of six coastal wetlands with mangrove forest, internationally certified as Ramsar Sites. Four are part of indigenous territories whose inhabitants have serious development lags and low water security. Five are alongside six irrigation districts of national relevance. The objective is to learn about the socio-environmental problems of the CBES, focused on the issue of water, as well as community proposals for solutions. Intercultural, mixed methodology approach. Prospecting visits were carried out in the six estuaries of the CBES, and 84 semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts from all social sectors who know the problems of the CBES in three (out of six) estuaries associated with indigenous territories. The main problem is centered on the issue of water: they receive contaminated water from agroindustry, aquaculture, and the municipal service; the fresh water of the rivers is almost nil, rainfall has decreased while the heat increases, and marine and terrestrial biodiversity decreases. This affects the food and economic security of the local population and generates conflicts between the different productive activities. A multisectoral organization that integrates the six estuaries would improve community wellbeing and, in turn, climate resilience.

1. Introduction

The Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES) is a proposal to promote the wellbeing and climate resilience of coastal communities in the center and south of the state of Sonora, which is located in northwestern Mexico, bordering the United States to the north and the Gulf of California to the west. It consists of 6 coastal wetland complexes with mangrove forest. Each one has the Ramsar Site certification whose conservation is considered an international priority, since they are key in the issues of climate, water, and food security. Four of them are part of the territories of the indigenous peoples Comcaac (Seri), Yoeme (Yaqui) and Yoreme (Mayo) (Following the conceptualization of the Political Constitution of Mexico, which in turn follows the respective international conventions, indigenous peoples are those communities of pre-Hispanic origin, which share a history, culture, language and territory collectively. The indigenous peoples of Sonora under study call themselves Comcaac, Yoeme, and Yoreme. In the local culture, they are better known as Seris, Yaquis, and Mayos, so these terms will be used in the text.) whose cultural practices maintain them in a relatively better state of conservation compared to other wetlands; therefore, the corridor is designated as “biocultural” [1]. The CBES is part of the infrastructure of 6 irrigation districts of national importance. It covers nine municipalities and 37 localities with about 40,551 inhabitants. This work contributes to the understanding of the problems of the hydrological cycle of the CBES and the level of impact it is having on the development of a wide variety of productive activities, but especially on the most vulnerable social sectors.

2. Political Ecology and Bioculture of Water

The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (CEPUM) states that lands and waters included within the national territory are the property of the Nation (Article 27) [2]. The state is empowered to transfer this domain in the form of private property. The administration of water corresponds to the Executive Branch. The National Water Law (LAN) establishes the principles for its use and preservation, through the National Water Commission (CONAGUA) [3]. In the structure of federal public institutions, CONAGUA belongs to the federal environmental sector, headed by the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT), indicating an interest in introducing environmental sustainability criteria in water management, but in reality, they are far from being carried out.
Water security as a human right is recognized as one of the main challenges facing humanity today [4,5]. In Mexico, in 2012, the human right to water was recognized in Article 4 of the Political Constitution of Mexico, laying the foundations for a new National Water Law, due to growing water insecurity and the fact that it has been recognized as a national security issue [6,7]. However, to date, at least six bills have been presented, but political agreements from the different social sectors have not been achieved [8,9].
The current National Water Law (LAN) contains some environmental criteria and also recognizes the legal personality of communal ownership of land through agrarian nuclei. However, overwhelmingly LAN is based on a conceptualization of water as a commodity [10,11]. This law was decreed in 1992, during the period of neoliberal economic development. This period is characterized by an unprecedented increase in water concessions to the private sector, in particular, to the agro-industrial sector, which, although it generated greater agricultural productivity, also favored the accumulation of water in the hands of the private sector [12]. LAN has also been criticized for its extractivist approach, associated with contemporary capitalist advance, in contrast to a management of the hydrological cycle [13].
Water management in Mexico is organized into 13 Administrative Hydrological Regions (RHA), demarcated by municipal boundaries according to hydrological basins and grouped by their location. The National Water Program 2020–2024 [3] recognizes that there is a serious deterioration of water, in quantitative and qualitative terms, and also points out the serious water insecurity in which almost half of the population remains.
The state of Sonora, where the region of this study is located, belongs to the RHA II, classified as under a High Degree of Pressure. The coastal municipalities which are part of the CBES are highly vulnerable to drought. Aquifers of the study region, for the most part, are classified as overexploited, and some even present saline intrusion [14]. In 2017, 76% of Sonora’s available water was destined for the agricultural sector, 64% comes from surface flow, and the rest from regional groundwater flow systems. Public supply consumes ~ 14%, electricity ~ 5% and private industry 5%. Water losses in agricultural irrigation are estimated at 40%, while that of public service reaches 60%, primarily through evaporation and leakage respectively [15].
The water problem in Sonora has been widely documented [16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25]. It refers mainly to the fact that the predominant ecosystem belongs to the Sonoran Desert, which not only means a relatively low rainfall regime, but also has temperatures that can exceed 40 °C for 6 continuous months and sometimes, 50 °C under the shade. Despite this, Sonora was able to become an agro-industrial power through its irrigation districts located in the coastal deltaic valleys, as well as a mining, livestock, and aquaculture industry, of national and in some respects, international relevance. It supports a population of 3 million people, of which 87% is urban. However, slowly, the water crisis has been settling in the region, to the point that in the 2024–2025 winter agricultural cycle, more than 80% of the irrigation districts, which once provided 50% of Mexico’s wheat, stopped being planted [24,25,26].
In the last 15 years, Sonora has been the scene of serious conflicts over water that have threatened the statu quo of the state’s political structure [27]. The implementation of the Sonora Water Plan 2023–2053 could again be the source of conflict between different economic sectors and the government [28]. Undoubtedly, the water problem of Sonora is not only due to its natural hydrological context, but also to Sonora’s productive and political organization, its place in federal policy, and the power of regional oligarchies.
Another factor is the lack of investment in updated science and technology. The water problem continues to be addressed with the prevailing belief that the water in the hydrological cycle exists in independent phases. The focus is on the surface and the rainfall regime [29], the quantity, distribution, and timing of which can be very variable. While more than 90% of the available water flows underground, little attention has been paid to the scientific study of the systemic dynamics of regional groundwater flows within the hydrological cycle. Authorizations for water extraction (surface or groundwater) granted by CONAGUA and supported by the LAN are still based on outdated hydrological scientific knowledge [30,31,32].

3. Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES)

The Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES) is a proposal for territorial organization that seeks community wellbeing and climate resilience. It is composed of six coastal wetlands with mangrove forest, certified as Ramsar Sites for being priorities for conservation: 1. Infiernillo Canal, 2. Laguna de la Cruz, 3. Estero del Soldado, 4. Guásimas-Bahía de Lobos, 5. Yavaros-Moroncarit, and 6. Agiabampo-Bacorehuis. Four of these estuaries are part of indigenous territories, Comcaac (Seri), Yoeme (Yaqui), Yoreme (Mayo). Locally, these wetlands are known as estuaries. Estuaries 1 and 2 belong to the Sonora river basin; 3, to Matape river basin; 4, to Yaqui river basin; 5, to Mayo river basin, and 6, to Fuerte river basin. Although they are not continuous, they are all estuaries fed by the marine currents of the Gulf of California, which is recognized for its unique marine life (Figure 1 and Table A1, Appendix A).
The six wetlands-Ramsar Sites total 276,344.2 ha. These estuaries have a critical function in the reproduction of multiple marine and coastal flora and fauna, and many of them are commercial fisheries. However, it is not simply a biological corridor. The indigenous presence and its role in the conservation of ecosystems define it as biocultural:
“When we were children, we listened to the elders, who referred to the sea as if it were a person. From the village they could hear the sea and sometimes they said: Today the sea will not accept me.”
(Indigenous sector expert. Yavaros-Moroncarit, September 2024) [36].
Wetlands certified as Ramsar Sites have strategic functions in the hydrological cycle. For example, mangrove vegetation acts as a water filter and forms a barrier to contain erosion and protect against storms from the oceans. According to studies carried out by Kachadourian in the Seri region (Canal del Infiernillo estuary) of the CBES, the regional groundwater flow systems of the hydrological cycle provide the continental water that originates and develops the springs, and the mangrove vegetation that distinguishes the wetlands of the CBES. Therefore, it is suggested that the mangrove is an indicator of the presence of regional groundwater flow systems with freshwater capacity. The traditional knowledge of indigenous communities is invaluable for the regeneration of regional water systems [37].
The CBES covers nine municipalities (counties in the United States), eight in the state of Sonora and one in Sinaloa. The land tenure that predominates within the Ramsar Sites is communal (agrarian nuclei) and to a lesser extent, private property. The coastal towns of these municipalities are 37, of which 23 are located in Sonora and 14 in Sinaloa, inhabited by a total of 40,551 people. Most of these localities are rural, that is, they are inhabited by less than 2500 people, and only four are considered urban, but with less than 10,000 inhabitants. As can be seen in Table A1 annexed, 13 localities have not shown population growth in the last 20 years. Seven are in a process of depopulation; ten have low growth of only 1%. And only eight have growth of 2 to 6%. This coincides with national trends, since in Mexico the growth rate in rural populations was 1.4% for the year 2020, while in 2000 it was above 2% (Table A2, Appendix B) [38,39,40,41,42,43,44]. The city of Guaymas was excluded, since its economic activity is not related to the wetlands of the CBES.
Five of the six wetlands of the CBES are related to six irrigation districts of national importance: Hermosillo Coast (DR 051), Guaymas (DR 084), Yaqui Colonies (DR 018), Yaqui River Valley (DR 041), Mayo River Valley (DR 038), Carrizo Valley (DR 076), which together add up to 447,687 ha. The water from the rivers mentioned above is retained in dams as part of the district’s infrastructure. Therefore, the rivers no longer flow to the sea, as they did naturally. The estuaries border the districts, and serve as the discharge zones for agricultural drainage (Figure 1).
Agricultural districts and coastal estuaries, together, make up a regional economy and culture, since the population lives simultaneously in both areas, guided by agricultural, fishing, and tourist cycles. According to Kachadourian’s [37], it is likely that the estuaries and irrigation districts of the CBES are part of the same regional hydrological system. Likewise, the CBES, in addition to the Ramsar Sites, includes multiple islands that are part of the Flora and Fauna Protection Area, Island of the Gulf of California [45].
It is important to note that in this scenario, indigenous peoples and the rural population make up the most affected water insecurity sector, who point out that the main obstacle is that they do not have access to the decision-making processes of water administration and distribution [16,46]. This is not only a matter of water justice, but because they are communities that have been occupying their territories since pre-Hispanic times, they have generated a whole set of beliefs, knowledge, and practices, which result in their ecosystems being in relatively better conservation conditions. For this reason, this heritage is called a biocultural legacy, whose uniqueness only occurs in the context of these communities [1,47]. Likewise, the importance of these territories as reservoirs of water and knowledge in the sustainable management of the hydrological cycle has been documented, and they are of great value for the identification of regional groundwater flow systems [37,48].

4. Methodology

The study is part of a social impact, interdisciplinary and intercultural research project (see Funding). It was presented on multiple occasions to the public and indigenous authorities. The study design has a mixed basis [49], more qualitative than quantitative. The scope of research focuses on a variety of perceptions as part of community social research [50], which were systematized for statistical processing for the presentation of standardized data, required by institutions for public policy planning [51].
The immersion in the field was carried out in different phases: prospecting visits were made to the six wetlands that make up the Estuarine Biocultural Corridor of Sonora (CBES), in which representatives and experts from various sectors (public, social and indigenous) were integrated to form a network of key actors to shape the organization of the CBES.
As part of the research project social impact, in 2024, three CBES Biocultural Festivals were organized, which aimed to encourage local and community economies through ecotourism and raise awareness about the value and importance of Ramsar Sites in climate resilience. The festivals were held in only three of the six estuaries, due to budget and time constraints. The selected estuaries were Canal del Infiernillo, Guásimas-Bahía de Lobos, and Yavaros-Moroncarit, because they are part of the Seri, Yaqui, and Mayo indigenous territories, respectively. Prior, visits were made to form the organizing committees of the CBES Biocultural Festivals. Finally, the three CBES Biocultural Festivals were held, where formal information gathering took place, throughout a previously designed research instrument. A subsequent visit was also made to conduct open interviews with key informants, which were useful for triangulation of the data.
The objective of the research instrument was to know the perception about the problem of CBES and identify proposals for solutions, so it was in an anonymous format. An interview was designed in a semi-structured format and was organized into seven sections (totaling 32 items): 1. Name of the Estuary (3 items); II. Demographics (7 items); III. Ethnicity (3 items); IV. Occupation (2 items); Productive activities of the estero (3 items, 2 interactive); VI. Conditions of the estero (5 items); VII. Management of the Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (8 items). The questions were multiple-choice questions about frequency, intensity or identification of problems and also open format for participants to give a more detailed explanation (for example, in your opinion, in what conditions is the estuary and its surroundings? and the answers: Very good, Good, Regular, Bad and Very bad, plus a space to explain why from your particular perception).
The Yavaros-Moroncarit festival took place on September 28; the Bahía de Lobos festival on October 4; and Canal del Infiernillo festival on October 11. The festival was supported by municipal governments (Huatabampo, San Ignacio Río Muerto and Hermosillo, respectively), the Government of the State of Sonora and representatives of the federal government, educational institutions, private enterprises, as well as traditional governments of the Mayo, Yaquis and Seris indigenous peoples. In this way, the assistance of experts, representatives of all social sectors, familiar with the problem of the estuaries under study, was ensured.
The festival attendees heard a series of lectures, given by local and external experts, on the biocultural and economic value of the estuaries, as well as the problems they are experiencing. Open public participation was encouraged and recorded as qualitative data. Subsequently, the interview was shared through QR codes linked to a Google form, for them to answer via their cell phone. Printed surveys were also distributed in those cases where the person did not have conditions to answer via cell phone. Altogether, 84 responses were obtained: 39 interviews from Yavaros-Moroncárit, 23 interviews from Bahía de Lobos, and 22 interviews from Canal del Infiernillo. It should be noted that the festival had to consider high local temperatures as well as public safety factors.
The systematization of information and analysis was carried out on the basis of an Excel database. Using descriptive statistical analysis, frequencies, modes, averages, and percentages were calculated, since the variables used were categorical. In this way, bar graphs and a radar graph were produced. For the radar graph, a matrix was drawn up with eight main productive activities, contrasted on the basis of average frequencies on the perception conflicts of each activity. It should be noted that the analyses carried out are to identify the perception of problems and possible solutions, without the intention of conducting formal statistical analysis, with sampling for convenience [50] and sufficient representation to make statistical inferences that are not generalizable but can be extrapolated to the other three CBES standards [52,53].
About the sample confirmation, as can be seen in Figure 2, most of the interviewees were between 18 and 49 years old, with a large participation of young people under 30 years of age (26%). Likewise, participation by gender was almost equal between men and women, and even when the non-binary option was given, no one pronounced themselves affirmatively. The high level of education stands out, as 64% mentioned having university studies, and even 31% said they had postgraduate studies. Despite being areas associated with indigenous territories, only 31% mentioned that an indigenous language was spoken in their family. This is related to the focus of the study, which was carried out through the municipal governments, which maintain distant if not antagonistic relationships with the indigenous population.
The occupations of the 84 interviewees were diverse, covering the public, private, and social sectors (Figure 3). There was participation from the three levels of government, federal, state, but with greater representation from the municipal level. Women who are ethnic councillors, who represent their indigenous community in the municipal government, as well as traditional indigenous authorities, even participated. Because the venues of the festival were educational institutions, this sector had a high participation (50%), of which 19% were young students who belonged to families living in the towns surrounding the estuaries, while 31% were teachers and scientists who worked in the study areas. Civil society participants, such as journalists, activists, and NGO representatives, made up 12%. The remaining 29% are dedicated to productive activities such as fishing, tourism, ecotourism, food processing, and work in the estuaries and their surroundings. People working in agriculture in irrigation districts, livestock, commerce, and the fishing industry also participated. It is important to clarify that some of them are engaged in various occupations, such as teacher and merchant, or activist and fisherman, among other combinations.

5. Results and Discussion

During the information gathering visits of the six coastal wetlands that make up the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES), the following was observed: local inhabitants who carry out productive activities in the estuary show a generalized concern about the deterioration of the estuaries. The sources of their concern are illegal fishing as well as water pollution. The pollution stems mainly from industrial activities such as agriculture in adjacent irrigation districts, as well as aquaculture, and other types of industries. Lack of rainfall and rising temperatures due to climate change are factors that further complicate the local problem. The following sections will focus on the problems of three of the estuaries of the CBES: Infiernillo Canal, Bahía de Lobos, and Yavaros-Moroncarit. The other three are presented with information derived from prospecting visits and bibliographic review.
The main adverse factors for the ecological integrity of the coastal wetland of Laguna de la Cruz are the development of aquaculture farms for shrimp production and overfishing. There are also problems of deforestation and pollution of the mangrove swamp due to illegal logging, and the lack of a protective perimeter that serves as a boundary between the mangrove and the roads that have been opened. It borders the Irrigation District 051 Costa de Hermosillo, whose aquifers have been documented to have saline intrusion. The town of Bahía de Kino is advancing as a tourist destination, in an uncontrolled fashion, which presents problems for the water supply. One of the interviewees said that Laguna de la Cruz is likely to lose its certification as a Ramsar Site.
“25 years ago, from Kino Viejo to the La Cruz estuary was very virgin and inaccessible. In 10 years, the towns and estuaries have changed a lot, the flora has been degraded by climate changes, and also by the effect of constructions”.
(Private sector aquaculture expert. Laguna de la Cruz, November 2024).
The Estero del Soldado is part of the real estate development of San Carlos, Guaymas, one of the main tourist centers of Sonora. San Carlos continues to advance around the estuary, without respecting a buffer zone, which respects at least the Federal Maritime Zone (ZOFEMAT). Authorization of hotel and housing developments, including a private hospital, near the estuary, which also compete for groundwater, continues unabated. The main problem in the Agiabampo-Bacorehuis lagoon system is related to illegal fishing practices. In addition, as they are located within the Carrizo Valley Irrigation District, the estuaries receive discharges of agricultural water [54].

5.1. Conditions of Three Estuaries of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES)

Of the three estuaries of the CBES on which this study focused, the Infiernillo Canal, Bahía de Lobos, and Yavaros-Moroncarit, 83.3% of the interviewees indicate that 25 years ago, the conditions of these ecosystems were better. In all three cases, their condition is considered regular, without being bad, although in Yavaros they observe greater deterioration. This perception of deterioration does not show differences between men and women. But it shows differences between students and professionals, since the latter express much greater concern.
The interviewees identified eight factors that are affecting the three estuaries under study, as can be seen in Figure 4. Water-related factors cause the most concern. For example, changes in climate (less rain and more heat and their negative effects) had a resounding response of 98%; this response is in line with the 2024 federal decree declaring Sonora in a state of emergency due to drought.
Pollution also had a high response, with 90%. It is also an issue related to water, since it derives mainly from the drains of the respective irrigation districts (Yaqui Colonies, Yaqui River Valley and Mayo River Valley) (Figure 1 and Table 1) that discharge into the Bay of Lobos and Yavaros-Moroncarit estuaries, respectively. These waters transport agrochemicals that are used as fertilizers and pesticides in agribusiness. In the case of Yaqui, some urban centers, such as Cd. Obregón, San Ignacio Río Muerto, and small towns discharge their wastewater into these drains (fecal matter, detergents, and other chemical and industrial organic compounds) and accumulate solid waste, mostly plastics. In the case of Mayo, something similar happens, only that the urban centers are Navojoa, Etchojoa, and Huatabampo, along with other smaller towns.
“The bay is polluted, the sardine plant and the irrigation canals are affecting them, the water is stagnant.”
(Public sector expert. Yavaros-Moroncarit, September 2024).
The waters of the agricultural drains also flood the estuaries with sediments from the soils of the agricultural areas. It is estimated that in Moroncarit, for example, sedimentation is more than one meter, compared to the depth of 25 years ago. The aquaculture industry, predominantly shrimp farming, which has thrived near the estuaries of Bay of Lobos and Yavaros, its wastewater discharges into the estuaries and is considered a source of contamination, due to the food and medicines used, since they can have a harmful effect on the larvae of the marine fauna species as well as the flora of the estuaries.
“The contamination of the mangrove, by industrial agriculture and the garbage of the villages, is due to the fact that there is no waste management system.”
(Social sector expert. Bahía de Lobos, October 2024).
Other factors of water are added, in its phases of surface and underground flow, since 60.7% of the interviewees indicated that fresh water no longer reaches the Yaqui and Mayo rivers, which corroborates previous studies that have documented that the inhabitants indicate that these rivers “are dead” [1]. While 52% think that the growing number of wells for agricultural irrigation and for municipal supply may be affecting the underground flow of water to the estuaries, although research is lacking in this regard.
Except for the issue of drought, water issues in the case of the Canal del Infiernillo estuary differ substantially from the Bahía de Lobos and Yavaros-Moroncarit. Even though the Seri territory borders the Hermosillo Coast Irrigation District, the discharges from the agricultural drains are directed toward the Laguna de la Cruz estuary, approximately 50 km to the south (Figure 1). The domestic drains of the towns still do not imply a major effect since the population barely totals 1200 people, and their small homes have handmade septic tanks. A greater risk comes from the desalination plant that supplies water to the town of Punta Chueca, but discharges brine into the estuary. According to Kachadourian’s [37], the nine coastal lagoons with mangrove forest that flow into the Canal del Infiernillo, are discharge zones of a regional groundwater flow system, which may be being affected by the pumping of groundwater wells in the agricultural area since half of the interviewees of this estuary, expressed their concern about the deforestation of the mangrove, which can also come from drought or a slight rise in sea level.
“The mangroves are drying up due to climate change, excessive heat and drought. Fresh water has decreased and there is too little to feed the estuary”
(Indigenous sector expert. Canal del Infiernillo, October 2024).
Concern about the over-exploitation of fishery resources is slightly higher than about overpollution (91.7%). This observation is stronger in the Yavaros-Moroncarit estuary than in Bahía de Lobos and the Canal del Infiernillo. This may be because the indigenous communities (Yaqui and Seri) have greater control over these estuaries. As can be seen in Figure 1, the estuaries of these communities are part of their agrarian territory, and since the 1970s are protected by a presidential decree giving them Fishing Exclusivity. In addition, the ways of managing the marine territory, as ancestral territory, have been widely documented, which results in a greater conservation of the conditions of the estuaries [55,56,57]. In contrast, the Mayo agrarian territory is fragmented and has a medium relationship with the corresponding estuary, thus being exposed to open exploitation by external agents from the region [1,58,59].
Even so, both Yaquis and Seris express concern over the significant decrease in their fisheries, such as shrimp in Bahía de Lobos, which they associate with pollution, the increase in sea temperature, the decrease in the contribution of fresh water, rain, the river and the subsoil, and the extraction of the larva by pumping water into aquaculture ponds, which become considerable volumes. But above all, as in the Yavaros case, it is attributed to illegal fishing that does not respect federal bans. In the Infiernillo Canal, fishing is concentrated in scallops and crabs, and in small volumes of scale fish. The decrease is forcing them to look for economic alternatives.
Concern over public insecurity was the fifth factor affecting the conditions of the estuaries (83.3%). It is an issue related to the advance of organized crime, which, because of the risk, no one wants to talk about openly. However, in more private conversations, everyone talks. In national journalism reports, it has been documented that the ecosystems of the mangrove forest are used to hide and exchange equipment and merchandise [60]. This has a direct impact on the type of productive activities that can be carried out in these ecosystems.
Finally, the lack of financing to take care of the estuaries is a factor (90.5%) perceived as important in the deterioration of the estuaries. The issues of pollution and overfishing are common knowledge, which are due to the fact that the environmental standards that exist in Mexican laws are not being respected. In addition, there is no investment in infrastructure, such as wastewater treatment plants, as well as in the full monitoring of water and biodiversity. Municipal and environmental bodies, such as the Federal Attorney for Environmental Protection (PROFEPA) or the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP), or CONAGUA itself, do not have sufficient human or economic resources to be able to carry out their functions, which was deepened in the past federal administration.

5.2. Productive Activities in Conflict and Their Relationship with Water

The productive activities (PA) of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES) which are part of this study were identified from activities observed in the three estuaries and their surrounding regions. According to the interviewees, these are the PAs that are presented in the study regions, listed in order of preponderance: 1. Coastal fisheries, 2. Agriculture, 3. Industrial fisheries, 4. Aquaculture, 5. Indigenous arts and crafts, 6. Other type of industry, 7. Services, 8. Tourism. The way in which these activities make use of the estuary varies. They obtain the product, either from the marine or terrestrial area, and they have constructions on the shores of the estuary, or they can discharge their waste in the marine area, or go on tourist tours.
“Mangroves are contaminated by community waste. Four tons of waste are generated daily in the Bahía de Lobos and the community burns it, throws it down the drain or dumps it just beyond the communities border.”
(Social sector expert. Bahía de Lobos, October 2024).
Most (87%) of the experts interviewed highlighted coastal fishing as the main productive activity. Followed by agriculture, which, because the irrigation districts adjoin the estuaries, competes for water and drains into the marine area. Thus, industrial fishing, aquaculture, handicrafts, and tourism are activities that fluctuated between 45% and 30%, while other types of industry and services 20%.
In the case of the Seri community, related to the Canal del Infiernillo estuary, the main activities are coastal fishing, followed by handicrafts and ecotourism. They extract the product from the estuary, mainly scallops and crab, which they sell to intermediaries on the beach daily. Waste is low, but is discharged into the estuary. The shell jewelry is of a very small scale. Pieces are made from shell collected in the shallow waters of the estuaries. Ecotourism tours visit the lagoons and mangroves. As there is no infrastructure or equipment on the shore of the beach, ecotourism is a temporary in-and-out activity.
“No, not just the drainage from various populations. I believe there must be a balance between economic and ecological issues.”
(Indigenous sector expert. Yavaros-Moroncarit, September 2024).
As for the Yaqui community of Bahía de Lobos, commercial shrimp fishing predominates, followed by mollusks and finfish. Shrimp aquaculture is also important, but the local population participates only as workers. This activity pumps water from the estuary to the ponds located in the vicinity, filtering tons of larvae of marine species daily. The water circulates through the ponds and is returned to the sea, but contaminated with industrial food residues as well as chemicals, which change the chemical and nutrient composition of the estuaries. Tourist activities are minimal. The industrial agriculture of the Yaqui River Valley District (200,000 ha) adjoins the estuary, where one of the main drainage channels discharges into the estuary, dragging sediments and agrochemicals.
Finally, in Yavaros-Moroncarit, coastal and industrial fishing of shrimp and sardines predominates. Moroncarit is used for coastal fishing, but on many occasions the bans are not respected. One of the drains of the irrigation district of the Mayo River Valley (038) discharges into this estuary, depositing significant levels of silt. In Yavaros Bay and its surroundings, shrimp and sardines are extracted industrially, whose waste is a source of pollution. Aquaculture is also present, although it does not seem to have an impact on Yavaros, as it does in Bay of Lobos. Tourism is on a small scale, which serves the regional market, with restaurants and boat rides around the bay. There is a small salt industry which seems to have little impact.
In each of the estuaries under study, productive activities present different degrees and types of conflict with each other, or with activities outside the estuaries. Figure 5 shows that 5 PAs have conflict relationships. Coastal fishing, agriculture, and industrial fishing are the activities that are most in conflict, followed by aquaculture and tourism, with lower but significant percentages. The analysis points out that conflicts occur around competition for natural resources are not of high intensity. Conflicts associated with water, on the other hand, do express greater intensity.
Coastal fisheries, industrial fisheries, aquaculture, and indigenous arts and crafts obtain their products from the marine area. Coastal fisheries are the predominant pursuit and, as can be seen in Figure 5, it is the one with the highest degree of conflicts. (The productive activities were listed according to their presence in the estuary. Industry, services, and indigenous arts and crafts because they do not have relevant conflict relations from the interviewees’ perception. Each colored line represents the behavior of a productive activity (PA). Each peak of behavior of the line represents the intensity of conflict, which the interviewees pointed out. For example, coastal fisheries and industrial fisheries have a similar behavior in the graph, implying that they are correlated. Unlike agriculture, this AP presents a conflict between different groups of agriculture at different scales (for example, familiar or industrial). To give better visibility to the intensity of the conflicts, the range of the axis was reduced from 100% to 40%. The graph is drawn up for illustrative purposes on the presence of conflict relations perceived by the interviewees, with a descriptive statistical analysis of average frequency and percentage). In the first instance, coastal fishermen compete with each other for the product. Over-exploitation of some species such as shrimp (Bahía de Lobos and Yavaros-Moroncarit) was noted, because the closures are not respected, or fishermen come from other regions and enter without respecting. The Canal del Infiernillo has a presidential decree as an exclusive fishing zone for the Seri indigenous people. The over-exploitation of scallops and crabs was pointed out, since the former is not closed and the latter does not respect the minimum size of the specimens. External fishermen enter, with the permission of the Seris, but they are unable to control the volume or quality of extraction. Industrial fishing is carried out in Bahía de Lobos and Yavaros, outside, but very close to the bays, and the trawls for shrimp sweep with multiple species. In Yavaros, concern was expressed because the sardine industry dumps waste into the bay.
Aquaculture, although it does not extract its product from the estuaries, does pump water from the sea to take it to the ponds. This procedure extracts large volumes of larvae from several fish species, which die immediately, affecting riverine production. Once the water circulates in the ponds, it returns to the sea, but it is loaded with the nutrients and chemicals used in the production process, which at certain times, can affect the quality of the water in the estuary and with it, the riparian production and the health of the ecosystem. This happens mainly in Bahía de Lobos. The handicrafts extract their product, mainly shells, from the shore of the beach, but on a very small scale, so it is not considered to affect other activities. Both industrial fishing and aquaculture and handicrafts have constructions on the shore of the estuary. As noted, the processing plants of Yavaros and Bay of Lobos, as well as the aquaculture plants in the latter. In other words, it is industrial activity that impacts water quality and the health of ecosystems, in addition to over-exploitation of riverlands.
As can be seen in Figure 5 and Table 1, industrial agriculture is carried out in the adjoining irrigation districts. In the cases of Bahía de Lobos and Yavaros-Moroncarit, the main conflict stems from competition for water. The drainage channels of the districts, with sediments and agrochemicals, discharge into the bays, flooding and affecting the quality of the water. Although most irrigation is from surface water, irrigation by wells is increasing, and it is very likely that it is affecting the underground flow of fresh water that reaches the estuaries and alters the chemical composition that had favored the reproduction of multiple species. The residents look with suspicion at the wells of agribusiness, while the supply of drinking water in their homes is insufficient. The deforestation of the mangrove, due to villages, tourism, and aquaculture, affects the wildlife of the estuaries, and it is likely that it is affecting the microclimate and is a factor that adds to climate change.
“The Infiernillo Channel is one of the least impacted in Sonora, due to its location and the control the Seris have of their territory.”
(Scientific sector expert. Canal del Infiernillo, November 2024).
A row of small mountains between the irrigation district of the Hermosillo Coast, and the Canal del Infiernillo estuary, protects the last one from contamination. While the Laguna de la Cruz estuary is affected by agricultural drainage and aquaculture deforestation. In relation to conflicts over water, it should be noted that climate change, expressed in less rainfall and higher temperatures, is affecting all productive activities (Figure 4). It should be noted that preliminary studies of the regional groundwater flow systems based on Tóthian Theory of the Seri territory (Canal del Infiernillo estuary) suggest that mangrove vegetation is an indicator of discharge of regional groundwater flow systems and that the dialogue of knowledge (Seri traditional knowledge) was very useful in identifying them. Likewise, this approach could explain the water problem in the CBES [37].
“The lack of awareness. The lack of coordination between scientific and political actors. We must permanently work on an agenda at the three levels of government.”
(Public sector expert, Bahía de Lobos, October 2024)
In summary, the interviewees do not report high percentages of conflicting relationships in productive activities. However, in the in-depth interviews with experts, relationships of magnitude and scope were expressed, which put at risk the ecosystem services of the estuaries for which they were certified as Ramsar Sites. In other words, if these trends continue, the entire CBES would be negatively impacted, as well as its hydrological cycles and finally, productive activities. On the other hand, activities such as tourism, crafts, and services, which have a very low environmental impact, as well as conflicts, operate as transversal activities, which can stimulate local economies. However, they are also at risk from climate change.

5.3. Management of the Proposed Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor

As already stated above, 83.3% of the interviewees confirmed their concern about the deterioration trend of their estuaries. Likewise, as explained in the methodology, the interviews were carried out within the framework of the Festival of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES), in which a variety of conferences were presented to publicize the value and problems of the estuaries. The main productive activities were also identified, as well as the degree and type of conflicts between them. For this reason, 74% consider the integration of CBES as a strategy for community wellbeing and climate resilience to be viable.
To move toward its management as a public policy, the following was preliminarily proposed:
  • Multi-sector organization such as CBES.
  • Establish an inter-institutional program in which the municipalities and the government of Sonora and Sinaloa participate: SADER SECTUR, SEMAR, SECIHTI, SEBIENESTAR, SEMARNAT, CONANP, and CONAGUA (See abbreviations). Also, CETMAR and entrepreneurs from Huatabampo, to name a few (National and local institutions).
  • Environmental restoration program that integrates:
    3.1.
    Science and technology
    3.1.1.
    Basic hydrogeology research on regional groundwater flow systems applying Tóthian Theory.
    3.1.2.
    Citizen monitoring of water, flora, and fauna.
    3.2.
    Agricultural and aquaculture drainage filtration systems
    3.3.
    Sea Turtle Nurseries
    3.4.
    Mangrove nurseries
    3.5.
    Organized cleaning of the estuaries.
  • Support program for alternative productive activities.
    4.1.
    Value added in fishery products
    4.2.
    Recycling of fishing waste
    4.3.
    Ecotourism-Festivals.
    4.4.
    Local gastronomy
  • CBES Financing program.
    5.1.
    State, federal, and international

6. Conclusions

The Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES) is a proposal for public policy, addressed to generate wellbeing and climate resilience in local communities. The Biocultural Festivals are a means of communicating the value and problems of the estuaries, but they are also an opportunity to showcase the potential for the development of economic activities such as ecotourism.
The approach of the political ecology and bioculture of water contributes to the analysis of the problem focused on regional socio-environmental justice, which in the case of Sonora presents a serious water crisis. Above all, it contributes to the development of a territorial strategy for vulnerable indigenous peoples, on the central and southern coast of Sonora and northern Sinaloa, who have based their subsistence around coastal wetlands with mangrove forests. Due to their importance for conservation, they have been internationally certified as Ramsar Sites.
The CBES allows us to identify shared community problems: the trend of deterioration of the estuaries, with differentiated social impact; the competition for water with irrigation districts, both surface and groundwater; the growing industrial pollution; the growing impact of climate change; and the lack of public investment in the attention of these areas that are strategic to face the water and climate crisis and in this, community welfare.
It is important to highlight that the introduction of systemic hydrogeology from regional groundwater flow systems contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the water problem in the set of irrigation districts associated with the coastal wetlands with mangrove forest, that is, the estuaries under study by the CBES.
The CBES is presented as a viable formula for socio-territorial organization, which, however, will have to face, once again, the differences in management power of the social sectors involved. Public policy implies inter-institutional presence, financing, and can start with a series of environmental restoration programs, and the promotion of productive activities that are in less conflict (transversal). Given demographic trends, it can be oriented toward those small urban localities, which already have certain types of services and infrastructure. In particular, it should pay attention to the issue of water, and to indigenous peoples, since their biocultural contribution is essential in the management and restoration of life in the CBES.
Further research must be undertaken on the three estuaries that could not be included in this study, in order to strengthen this public policy proposal. Meanwhile, these results must be known by all socio-economic sectors involved in the CBES.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.L.-A., A.K.-M. and A.D.M.; Methodology, D.L.-A. and M.A.F.-C.; Software, M.A.F.-C.; Validation, D.L.-A., A.K.-M. and L.C.-D.; Formal analysis, M.A.F.-C.; Investigation, D.L.-A., M.A.F.-C., A.K.-M. and L.C.-D.; Resources, D.L.-A.; Data curation, M.A.F.-C.; Writing – original draft, D.L.-A. and M.A.F.-C.; Writing – review & editing, D.L.-A., M.A.F.-C. and A.D.M.; Visualization, D.L.-A., M.A.F.-C. and A.K.-M.; Supervision, A.D.M.; Project administration, D.L.-A.; Funding acquisition, D.L.-A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by National Council of Humanities, Science and Technology of México. Project “Seguridad Energética, Hídrica y Alimentaria, para Pueblos Originarios en Regiones Semiáridas del Norte de México”. Component “Territorio y Biodiversidad”, grant number 319483.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

To the technical support of Moisés Rivera Apodaca. To the intercultural research group, Enrique Robles Torres (President of the Comcaac-Seri Council of Elders), Apolethe Valenzuela (Ethnic Councillor of the Yoeme/Yaqui people, of the Municipality of San Ignacio Río Muerto), Erasmo Leyva Yocupicio (Cobanaro de San Antonio, of the Yoreme/Mayo people), Ernesto Molina (Council of Elders Comcaac-Seri), Romelia Barnett (Ethnic Councillor of the Comcaac/Seri), Andrés Barnett (Comcaac/Seri Representative at Prescott College) and Julio César Robles Blanco (Actor in Productive Activities in the Comcaac/Seri Community).

Conflicts of Interest

Author Alessia Kachadourian-Marras was employed by the company U-Flows S.C. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

CBESSonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor
LANNational Water Law
CEPUMThe Political Constitution of the United Mexican States
CONAGUANational Water Commission
CONANPNational Commission of Protected Natural Areas
RHAHydrological Administrative Regions
SEMARNATMinistry of Environment and Natural Resources
INEGINational Institute of Statistics and Geography
SADERMinistry of Agriculture and Rural Development
SECTURMinistry of Tourism
SEMARMinistry of Marine
SECIHTISecretariat of Science, Humanities, Technology and Innovation
SEBIENESTARMinistry of Wellbeing
ZOFEMATFederal Maritime-Terrestrial Zone
PROFEPAFederal Attorney for Environmental Protection

Appendix A

Table A1. Socio-environmental components of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES).
Table A1. Socio-environmental components of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES).
StateMunicipalityCoastal TownPoppu-LationIndigenous TerritoryProtected Natural Area (PNA)Ramsar Site (ha)Irrigation District (ha)
SonoraPitiquitoDesemboque329SeriIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaCanal del Infiernillo y esteros del territorio Comcaac (29,700.0 ha)ND
HermosilloPunta Chueca682SeriIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaCanal del Infiernillo y esteros del territorio Comcaac (29,700.0 ha)051—Costa de Hermosillo (46,068.99 ha)
Bahia de Kino6454NAIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaHumedales de la Laguna La Cruz (6665.2 ha)051—Costa de Hermosillo (46,068.99 ha)
Choyudo449NAIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costeraND
GuaymasLa Manga185NAIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costeraND
San Carlos2508NAIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaEstero El Soldado (349.9 ha)084—Valle de Guaymas (13,891.72 ha)
Guasimas de Belem1959YaquiIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaComplejo Lagunar Bahía Guasimas—Estero Lobos (135,197.5 ha)018—Colonias Yaquis (19,407.70 ha)
Baugo Guasimas322YaquiIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaComplejo Lagunar Bahía Guasimas—Estero Lobos (135,197.5 ha)018—Colonias Yaquis (19,407.70 ha)
EmpalmeCruz de Piedra922NAIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costera084—Valle de Guaymas (13,891.72 ha)
San Ignacio Rio MuertoBahia de Lobos2991YaquiIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaComplejo Lagunar Bahía Guasimas—Estero Lobos (135,197.5 ha)041—Rio Yaqui (196,564.72 ha)
BacumSan Jose36YaquiIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costera041—Rio Yaqui (196,564.72 ha)
Cajeme--NDIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costera041—Rio Yaqui (196,564.72 ha)
Benito JuarezParedon Colorado2945NAIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costera041—Rio Yaqui (196,564.72 ha)
Aceitunitas556NAIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costera041—Rio Yaqui (196,564.72 ha)
Paredoncito2400NAIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costera041—Rio Yaqui (196,564.72 ha)
Etchojoa--NDIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costera038—Rio Mayo (85,684.11 ha)
HuatabampoMoroncarit1480MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaHumedales de Yavaros—Moroncarit (13,627.2 ha)038—Rio Mayo (85,684.11 ha)
Yavaros3677MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaHumedales de Yavaros—Moroncarit (13,627.2 ha)038—Rio Mayo (85,684.11 ha)
Tojahui16MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costera038—Rio Mayo (85,684.11 ha)
Las Bocas1053MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costera038—Rio Mayo (85,684.11 ha)
Bachimojaqui110MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaZona costera038—Rio Mayo (85,684.11 ha)
Camahuiroa191MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)038—Rio Mayo (85,684.11 ha)
Navopatia6NAIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Agiabampo Uno1882MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Agiabampo Dos497MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
SinaloaAhomeBacorehuis2049MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
El Campito40MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Jitzamuri1276MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Poblado San Alberto12MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Bolsa de Tosalibampo Uno438MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)DR 076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Bolsa de Tosalibampo Dos605MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
El Ranchito22MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Huacaporito436MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
San Pablo778MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Las Lajitas68MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Las Presitas11MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Campo Nuevo649MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Matacahui120MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
El Aguajito2397MayoIslas del Golfo de CaliforniaSistema Lagunar Agiabampo-Bacorehuis-Rio Fuerte Antiguo (90,804.4 ha)076—Valle del carrizo (86,070.13 ha)
Total 40,551 inahab. 276,344.2 ha447,687.37 ha
Note: ND: No Data / NA: Not Applicable. Source: Authors’ elaboration based on the databases [61,62,63,64].

Appendix B

Table A2. Demographic trends of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES).
Table A2. Demographic trends of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES).
MunicipalityCoastal TownPoppulation, 2000% Growth Rate Per Year, 2010Poppulation, 2010% Growth Rate Per Year, 2020Poppulation, 2020
PitiquitoDesemboque425−4%2871%329
HermosilloPunta Chueca4472%5203%682
Bahia de Kino49042%60501%6454
Choyudo2744%3931%449
GuaymasLa Manga826%1462%185
San Carlos14405%22641%2508
Guasimas de Belem13903%18041%1959
Baugo Guasimas1864%2851%322
EmpalmeCruz de Piedra7292%9160%922
San Ignacio Rio MuertoBahía de Lobos30125%28670%2991
BacumSan Jose156%273%36
CajemeNANA NA NA
Benito JuárezParedon Colorado25321%26651%2945
Aceitunitas3293%4542%556
Paredoncito2532−1%22511%2400
EtchojoaNANA NA NA
HuatabampoMoroncarit14380%14450%1480
Yavaros38260%36920%3677
Tojahui20−1%18−1%16
Las Bocas9041%10490%1053
Bachimojaqui1160%1150%110
Camahuiroa1582%1890%191
Navopatia27−14%60%6
Agiabampo Uno18830%19290%1882
Agiabampo Numero Dos4951%530−1%497
AhomeBacorehuis10216%18821%2049
El Campito430%410%40
Jitzamuri1375−1%12590%1276
Poblado San Alberto10−4%76%12
Bolsa de Tosalibampo Uno558−1%509−1%438
Bolsa de Tosalibampo Dos8530%820−3%605
El Ranchito156%26−2%22
Huacaporito3751%4240%436
San Pablo5363%7151%778
Las Lajitas278−1%241−12%68
Las Presitas164%23−7%11
Campo Nuevo1814%2809%649
Matacahui932%1131%120
El Aguajito22491%23830%2397
Total37 locations32,0560.018138,6250.002440,551
Note: ND: No Data/ NA: Not Applicable.
The “Exponential Growth Rate” formula was used to calculate the % of Population Growth Rate for every 10 years.
The general model of exponential growth is
y = C(1 + r) t
where C is the initial quantity or number; r is the growth rate (e.g., a growth rate of 2% means r = 0.02); and t is the elapsed time.
Source: Authors’ elaboration, based on databases [38,39,40,41,42,43,44].

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Figure 1. Map of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES). Source: Authors’ elaboration [33,34,35].
Figure 1. Map of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES). Source: Authors’ elaboration [33,34,35].
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Figure 2. Sociodemographic characteristics (Authors’ elaboration).
Figure 2. Sociodemographic characteristics (Authors’ elaboration).
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Figure 3. Occupation (Authors’ elaboration).
Figure 3. Occupation (Authors’ elaboration).
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Figure 4. Perception of factors affecting three estuaries of the CBES (Authors’ elaboration).
Figure 4. Perception of factors affecting three estuaries of the CBES (Authors’ elaboration).
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Figure 5. Productive activities in conflict in three estuaries of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES). Source: Authors’ elaboration.
Figure 5. Productive activities in conflict in three estuaries of the Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor (CBES). Source: Authors’ elaboration.
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Table 1. Category of conflict between productive activities and their relationship with water.
Table 1. Category of conflict between productive activities and their relationship with water.
Ramsar SitesProduction Activities with a Higher PresenceProduction Activities in ConflictCategory of Conflict in Relation to Water *
Humedales de Yavaros-Moroncarit1. Coastal fisheries
2. Industrial fisheries
3. Aquaculture
  • Coastal fisheries, Coastal fisheries, Industrial fisheries, Aquaculture
1
  • Agriculture, Agriculture, Coastal fisheries
2,3
  • Coastal fisheries, Aquaculture
1
  • Presence of cross-cutting activities
4
Complejo Lagunar Bahía Guasimas—Estero Lobos1. Coastal fisheries
2. Aquaculture
  • Coastal fisheries, Coastal fisheries, Industrial fisheries, Industrial fisheries
1
  • Aquaculture, Coastal fisheries, Aquaculture
1
  • Presence of collector drains
2
Canal del Infiernillo y esteros del territorio Comcaac1. Coastal fisheries
2. Tourism
3. Indigenous arts and crafts
  • Coastal fisheries, Coastal fisheries
1
  • Coastal fisheries, Industrial fisheries
1
  • Presence of cross-cutting activities
4
Notes: Source: Authors’ elaboration. * Category of conflict: 1. Shared use of coastal spaces and bodies of water. 2. Ecological impact on water quality. 3. Competition for water. 4. Climate change.
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Luque-Agraz, D.; Flores-Cuamea, M.A.; Kachadourian-Marras, A.; Cornejo-Denman, L.; Murphy, A.D. Water: The Central Theme of the Proposed Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor of Northwestern Mexico. Water 2025, 17, 2227. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17152227

AMA Style

Luque-Agraz D, Flores-Cuamea MA, Kachadourian-Marras A, Cornejo-Denman L, Murphy AD. Water: The Central Theme of the Proposed Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor of Northwestern Mexico. Water. 2025; 17(15):2227. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17152227

Chicago/Turabian Style

Luque-Agraz, Diana, Martha A. Flores-Cuamea, Alessia Kachadourian-Marras, Lara Cornejo-Denman, and Arthur D. Murphy. 2025. "Water: The Central Theme of the Proposed Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor of Northwestern Mexico" Water 17, no. 15: 2227. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17152227

APA Style

Luque-Agraz, D., Flores-Cuamea, M. A., Kachadourian-Marras, A., Cornejo-Denman, L., & Murphy, A. D. (2025). Water: The Central Theme of the Proposed Sonora Estuarine Biocultural Corridor of Northwestern Mexico. Water, 17(15), 2227. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17152227

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