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Article

Visible Light-Driven Z-Scheme CNQDs/Ag3PO4 Octopod-Shaped Nanostructures with Exposed {110} Facets for Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation

by
Xiaoze Yin
1,
Yuxin Xiao
1,
Chaoyue Wu
1 and
Jinnan Wang
1,2,*
1
State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
2
Guochuang Low Carbon Technology Co., Ltd., Yancheng 224100, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2025, 17(11), 1594; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111594
Submission received: 10 April 2025 / Revised: 14 May 2025 / Accepted: 21 May 2025 / Published: 25 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Oxidation and Photocatalytic Approaches for Efficient Degradation of Organic Pollutants in Water Treatment)
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Abstract

:
Although Ag3PO4 possessed high quantum yield (approximately 90%) and strong oxidation potential, its practical application was limited due to serious photocorrosion and inadequate stability. To improve the anti-photocorrsion ability, carbon nitride quantum dots (CNQDs) were loaded on octopod-like Ag3PO4 with {110}-faceted rhombic dodecahedrons. The CNQDs stabilized the high-energy {110} facets via carboxylate-mediated interactions, facilitating oriented assembly into 3D octopod configurations. More importantly, a Z-scheme heterojunction was constructed between CNQDs and Ag3PO4 for electrons transfer from Ag3PO4 to CNQDs, which could not only maintain strong redox potentials but also suppress carrier recombination. The 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composite achieved a more than 90% removal of methyl orange within 13 min. Radical trapping and EPR analyses indicated that holes of Ag3PO4 played a dominant role in organics degradation. In addition, •O2−, which was generated from the O2 reduction by photogenerated electrons of CNQDs, also participated in the degradation of organics. This work provides a facet-controlled heterojunction design strategy, leveraging quantum-confined CNQDs to enhance charge kinetics and molecular oxygen activation.

1. Introduction

Silver orthophosphate (Ag3PO4) is considered a promising visible light-driven photocatalyst, distinguished by its narrow bandgap (~2.4 eV) and exceptional quantum efficiency, making it effective for organic pollutant degradation [1,2,3,4]. While morphological engineering has developed diverse architectures (rhombic dodecahedrons, cubic structures, dendritic frameworks, and 3D flower-like microspheres) [5,6,7,8], rhombic dodecahedrons with exposed high-energy {110} facets demonstrate superior performance due to enhanced charge separation efficiency and facet-dependent reactivity. Ye et al. [9] reported that single-crystalline Ag3PO4 dodecahedrons with exclusive {110} facet exposure exhibited 3.2-fold higher methylene blue degradation rates compared to their {100}-faceted cubic counterparts. Despite progress in facet engineering, the thermodynamic instability of high-energy {110} facets remains an inherent challenge. Surface energy minimization during crystal growth induces facet reconstruction, leading to irreversible activity loss [10,11]. Concurrently, Ag3PO4 suffers from a pernicious photocorrosion issue: under illumination, photogenerated electrons reduce Ag+ to metallic Ag0, resulting in structural degradation and rapid activity decay [12,13]. Recent advances address these challenges through heterostructure engineering with metals (Au, Ag) [14,15], carbonaceous materials (graphene, carbon nanotubes) [16,17,18,19], and semiconductor hybrids (BiVO4, TiO2) [20,21,22]. Particularly promising are Z-scheme charge transfer systems, which enable a spatial separation of redox-active carriers while preserving strong reduction/oxidation potentials through mediator-assisted recombination [23,24,25,26,27,28,29]. In such configurations, photogenerated electrons from a semiconductor with lower conduction band (CB) potential recombine with holes from a partner material possessing higher valence band (VB) potential via electron mediators (Au, Ag, or graphene), thereby retaining highly reactive carriers at separated active sites [30]. This dual mechanism of enhanced charge separation and maintained redox capacity makes Z-scheme systems particularly suited for stabilizing Ag3PO4.
Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4), a metal-free 2D semiconductor, has emerged as an ideal partner for Ag3PO4 in Z-scheme architectures. He et al. [31] demonstrated that g-C3N4/Ag/Ag3PO4 ternary composites achieved 89% CO2-to-CH4 conversion efficiency under visible light, while Meng et al. [32] reported direct Z-scheme behavior in g-C3N4/Ag3PO4 hybrids with 98% methylene blue degradation within 60 min. However, bulk g-C3N4 suffers from limited conductivity and insufficient active sites, restricting charge transfer kinetics [33]. Recent advances in 0D carbon nitride quantum dots (CNQDs) offer a breakthrough due to their quantum confinement effects enhancing light absorption, while abundant edge amine/pyridinic N groups and carboxylate functionalities (introduced during acidic etching) improve dispersibility and interfacial coupling with Ag3PO4 [34,35,36]. Li et al. [37] exemplified this by developing CNQDs/TiO2 photoelectrodes achieving simultaneous H2 evolution (12.8 μmol·h−1) and pollutant degradation (95% in 4 h).
Based on these advances, this study introduces a novel Z-scheme photocatalyst combining CNQDs with octopod-like Ag3PO4 architectures constructed from {110}-faceted rhombic dodecahedrons. Our design features three key innovations, namely (1) octopod-like Ag3PO4 superstructures constructed from rhombic dodecahedral building units with stabilized {110} facets, providing abundant active sites; (2) CNQD-mediated structural stabilization through carboxylate group interactions; and (3) the establishment of a Z-scheme charge transfer mechanism between CNQDs and Ag3PO4. This architecture enables directional electron transfer from the CB of Ag3PO4 to the VB of CNQDs, effectively addressing both photocorrosion and charge recombination issues while maintaining strong redox potentials. The synergistic combination of facet engineering and quantum dot hybridization not only enhances photocatalytic activity but also improves structural stability, representing a significant advancement toward practical wastewater treatment applications. This work provides fundamental insights into the rational design of high-performance photocatalytic systems through multidimensional material engineering.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Chemicals

All the chemicals were of analytical grade and purchased from Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). In the present study, the chemicals were used without further purification.

2.2. Synthesis of CNQDs, Ag3PO4 and CNQDs/Ag3PO4

2.2.1. Synthesis of CNQDs

CNQDs were synthesized by the exfoliation and hydrothermal method from bulk g-C3N4. Specifically, 10.0 g of dicyandiamide was evenly spread at the bottom of a porcelain boat and calcined in a muffle furnace. The temperature was raised to 550 °C with a heating rate of 5 °C/min and maintained at 550 °C for 4 h. After cooling to room temperature, the obtained bulk carbon nitride was ground into a homogeneous light yellow powder using an agate mortar. The bulk material was then transferred to a porcelain boat and recalcined at 550 °C for 2 h with a heating rate of 2.3 °C/min. A fluffy white powder of layered carbon nitride nanosheets (CNNSs) was obtained after cooling. Then, 0.1 g of CNNSs was dispersed in a 40 mL vial containing 10 mL of H2SO4 and 10 mL of H2NO3. The mixture was sonicated at room temperature until the solution was clear, followed by dilution with 300 mL of deionized water to obtain a suspension. Residual acids were removed by filtration (0.45 µm) and washed with deionized water, yielding porous CNNSs. The purified CNNS was redispersed in 20 mL of deionized water under sonication and transferred into a 25 mL Teflon-lined autoclave. The sealed reactor was heated at 200 °C for 10 h in a drying oven. After cooling, the 1 mg/mL CNQD solution was obtained.

2.2.2. Synthesis of Ag3PO4

Briefly, 0.20 g CH3COOAg was dissolved in 50 mL of deionized water by ultrasonication. Then, an aqueous solution of Na2HPO4 (3 mL, 0.15 M) was added in the solution drop by drop, with the formation of golden yellow precipitation. The obtained precipitate was collected via centrifugation, followed by sequential rinsing with deionized water and anhydrous ethanol. Subsequently, the synthesized rhombic dodecahedral Ag3PO4 crystals were subjected to thermal drying at 60 °C for 6 h to obtain the final product.

2.2.3. Synthesis of CNQDs/Ag3PO4

In a typical synthesis process (Scheme 1), certain amounts of the CNQD solution were diluted into 50 mL deionized water, and 0.20 g of CH3COOAg was added to the CNQD solution. To enable sufficient contact between Ag+ and CNQDs, the mixture was ultrasonicated for 6 h. Then, an aqueous solution of Na2HPO4 (3 mL, 0.15 M) was added in the solution drop by drop. After stirring for 2 h, the products with different contents of CNQDs to Ag3PO4 (5%, 10%, 12.5%, 15%, 20%) were collected by centrifugation. The obtained samples were washed by deionized water and anhydrous ethanol several times and finally dried at 60 °C for 6 h. In the present work, these samples were denoted as 5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, 10%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, 15%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, and 20%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, respectively. In addition, the synthesis process of the g-C3N4 nanosheets (12.5 wt%)/Ag3PO4 composite was similar to that of CNQDs/Ag3PO4, except for replacing CNQDs with g-C3N4 nanosheets, and the obtained sample was marked as 12.5%CNNS/Ag3PO4.

2.3. Characterization of the Photocatalysts

The morphology and microstructure of the samples were characterized by a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM, S-3400NII, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan). The phase structures were examined via X-ray diffraction (XRD, XTRA, Zurich, Switzerland) with Cu-Kα radiation (2θ range: 15–90°, scanning rate: 5° min−1). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS; PHI 5000 Versa Probe, ULVAC-PHI, Chigasaki, Japan) was employed to determine binding energies. Optical properties were evaluated by ultraviolet–visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) using a UV-vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-2600, Kyoto, Japan) over 200~800 nm, with BaSO4 as the reflectance standard. Photocurrent responses were measured with an electrochemical analyzer (CHI660E, Shanghai Chenhua, Shanghai, China) in a standard three-electrode configuration to assess photocarrier migration. Photoluminescence (PL) spectra were acquired using a fluorescence spectrometer (HJY FM4P-TCSPC, Horiba, Kyoto, Japan).

2.4. Photocatalytic Activity Tests

The photocatalytic activity of the synthesized samples was conducted under visible light irradiation using an XPA-VII reactor (Xujiang Electromechanical Plant, Nanjing, China). To cut off ultraviolet radiation (<420 nm A), a 350 W xenon lamp was equipped with a 420 nm cutoff filter. Typically, 15 mg of the photocatalyst was added in a 50 mL MO solution (5 mg·L−1) within a cylindrical quartz reactor (inner diameter: 2 cm; working volume: 60 mL). The suspension was magnetically stirred in darkness for 30 min to ensure reaching the adsorption and desorption equilibrium. During photodegradation, a 1 mL aliquot was periodically extracted at defined time intervals. The residual concentration of MO was determined at 464 nm using a Shimadzu UV-2600 spectrophotometer. The photocatalytic decomposition rate (E%) was calculated according to Equation (1):
E% = (c0 − c)/c0 × 100%
where c0 (mg·L−1) and c (mg·L−1) represent the initial concentration and the concentration of the MO sampled during illumination, respectively.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Morphology and Structure of Photocatalysts

As shown in Figure 1, the diffraction peaks of pure Ag3PO4 were indexed to the body-centered cubic structure (JCPDS no. 06-0505, Figure S1), and all CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composites exhibited analogous diffraction patterns to pristine Ag3PO4. The diffraction peak intensity assigned to {110} in the composite (as shown in the red dashed box) is significantly enhanced compared to that of conventional granular Ag3PO4, suggesting an increased exposure of the {110} facet. In addition, diffraction peaks of g-C3N4 were not detected, which might be explained by the low content and crystallinity of exfoliated g-C3N4 in the composite [38].
To elucidate the chemical composition and bonding states, XPS analysis of samples were performed. Distinct peaks of Ag 3d5/2 (368.11 eV) and Ag 3d3/2 (374.15 eV) in the high-resolution Ag 3d spectrum of the 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composite (Figure 2f) confirm the presence of Ag+ in the Ag3PO4 lattice [39]. Deconvolution of the C 1s spectrum (Figure 2b) reveals three constituent peaks at 284.78, 286.01, and 288.05 eV, which corresponds to the C-N-C/C-C/C-H, C=O, and C-(N3) bonding configurations, respectively [40,41]. The N 1s spectrum (Figure 2c) displays characteristic peaks at 398.49, 399.6, and 401.24 eV, which are, respectively, attributed to C-N-C coordination, N-(C)3 groups, and N-H moieties in the triazine-based structure of g-C3N4 [42,43]. Three oxygen species of the 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composite are identified according to the O 1s spectrum (Figure 2d), which include surface-adsorbed hydroxyl groups (-OH) at 532.9 eV, C-O bonds (531.6 eV) from CNQDs, and lattice oxygen in Ag3PO4 (530.5 eV). Furthermore, the P 2p spectrum (Figure 2e) exhibited a prominent peak at 131.6 eV, confirming the presence of pentavalent phosphorus species (P5+) [44]. Thus, large amounts of edge amine/pyridinic N groups and carboxylate functionalities were modified on CNQDs/Ag3PO4 contained during the acidic etching process, thereby improving the dispersibility and interfacial coupling of Ag3PO4.
FESEM was employed to observe the morphology of samples. Pristine Ag3PO4 exhibits irregular rhombic dodecahedral morphology (Figure 3a). Upon CNQD incorporation, the composite particles show sharper angular features (Figure 3b–f). Notably, when the CNQD content reached 12.5 wt%, octopod-like structures with eight-branched projections emerged (marked with a red circle), predominantly exposing high-energy {110} crystallographic facets. This morphological transformation suggested that CNQDs had a significant influence on Ag3PO4 crystallization dynamics. In general, crystallization processes are predominated by thermodynamic stability and kinetics. CNQDs modulated interfacial free energies through selective facet adsorption [45], which thermodynamically stabilized the {110} facets. Specifically, the preferential adsorption of CNQDs on {110} planes would inhibit lateral growth along these directions, promoting the anisotropic development of rhombic dodecahedrons [8]. Additionally, lone electron pairs of amino groups (-NH2) on CNQDs facilitated the formation of coordination with Ag+ and caused molecular self-assembly [46], inducing oriented growth toward octopod configurations [47]. Such a molecular self-assembly mechanism is shown in Figure 3g.

3.2. Photocatalytic Performance

CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composites with 12.5 wt% CNQDs exhibit the best photocatalytic performance (Figure 4a,b), achieving 6.1-fold and 4.7-fold enhancements in the reaction rate compared to pristine Ag3PO4 (0.2916 vs. 0.0478 min−1) and CNNS/Ag3PO4 (0.2916 vs. 0.0621 min−1), respectively (Table 1). The increase in activity trend followed a volcano-shaped relationship with CNQD loading contents, suggesting the optimal content of CNQDs loaded on Ag3PO4. On one hand, insufficient CNQD content (<12.5 wt%) failed to establish efficient charge transfer pathways. On the other hand, excessive loading of CNQDs (>12.5 wt%) not only shielded active sites through surface over-coverage but also introduced charge recombination centers, resulting in the reduction in visible light absorption [48]. Notably, 91% total organic carbon (TOC) removal within 13 min (Figure 4c) can be achieved, which confirms the superior mineralization capability of the optimized composite (Table S1).
Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy revealed the charge carrier dynamics (Figure 5a). The more dramatically quenched PL intensity at 640 nm for 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 compared to pristine Ag3PO4 and CNNS/Ag3PO4 demonstrates the more efficient charge carrier separation, which is consistent with its enhanced photocatalytic activity [49]. Electrochemical characterization experiments further corroborated these findings, in which a transient photocurrent density of 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 is higher than those of compared samples by 3.2~4.5 times (Figure 5b). Additionally, Nyquist plots revealed a significantly reduced charge transfer resistance, indicating that the arc radius of prepared samples follows the order of 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 ≪ 12.5%CNNS/Ag3PO4 < Ag3PO4 (Figure 5c). Thus, 12.5%CNQDs loaded on Ag3PO4 could well optimize interfacial charge transfer kinetics [50,51,52,53]. UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectra (Figure 5d) showed progressive blue shifts in absorption edges with the loaded CNQD content, suggesting the widening of the bandgap. Despite a reduction in light-harvesting capacity, 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 could still maintain the highest photocatalytic performance due to its superior charge separation.
Cyclic stability tests (Figure 6a) demonstrated excellent structural integrity of 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, retaining 94.2% initial activity after six cycles. Post-catalysis XPS analysis (Figure 6b) confirms chemical stability through unchanged Ag 3d5/2 (368.11 eV) and Ag+ (374.15 eV) binding energies, excluding metallic Ag formation during photocatalysis. This remarkable stability, combined with high activity and mineralization capability, positions the composite as a promising candidate for practical wastewater treatment applications. In addition, the effects of solution pH and actual dyeing wastewater conditions on the photocatalytic degradation over the 12.5% CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composite are investigated (Figures S2 and S3). Although the acid condition showed adverse effects on MO degradation, more than 60% COD removal could be achieved within 2 h, suggesting the application potential in wastewater treatment.

3.3. Proposed Mechanism

The photocatalytic degradation mechanism is systematically investigated through radical trapping experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy (Figure 7). The dominant reactive species in the 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 system were identified using specific scavengers, namely p-benzoquinone (p-BQ) for superoxide radicals (•O2−), disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA-2Na) for holes (h+), and tert-butanol (TBA) for hydroxyl radicals (•OH) [54]. Remarkably, MO degradation was not decreased in the presence of •OH scavenging (TBA), whereas significant inhibition occurred as •O2− and h+ scavengers (EDTA) were added. This observation confirmed that h+ serves as the predominant active species during the photocatalytic degradation process, consistent with our previous study [46]. Notably, the partial suppression by p-BQ indicated that both •O2− and h+ played an important role in MO degradation, which confirmed the construction of a Z-scheme heterojunction between CNQDs and Ag3PO4.
To further validate the photocatalytic mechanism, EPR measurements are performed under visible light irradiation (Figure 8a). Characteristic DMPO-•OH adduct signals were not detected over the prepared samples, indicating that •OH was not generated during the photocatalytic reaction. In addition, DMPO-•O2− signals were detected over CNQDs/Ag3PO4 under visible light irradiation while not detected in pure Ag3PO4 systems (Figure 8b), which is consistent with the scavenger experiment. Considering the band structure of Ag3PO4 (VB = 2.9 eV; CB = 0.45 eV), electrons of CB could not reduce O2 to •O2− potential (−0.33 eV vs. NHE for O2/•O2−) to generate •O2−.
The coexistence of h+ and •O2− as primary reactive species strongly supports that the charge transfer followed the Z-scheme mechanism (Figure 9): (1) photogenerated electrons of Ag3PO4 CB rapidly migrate to CNQDs and recombine with VB holes of CNQDs, (2) residual holes of Ag3PO4 VB directly oxidize organic pollutants, and (3) accumulated electrons on CNQDs reduce adsorbed O2 to yield •O2−, promoting oxidation. Such a dual-channel charge separation mechanism not only enhanced redox potentials of both components but also effectively suppressed photocarrier recombination, resulting in a synergistic improvement of photocatalytic activity and the reduction in PL (Figure 5a).

4. Conclusions

In this study, rhombic dodecahedral CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composites with exclusively exposed {110} facets were fabricated. The optimized 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composite exhibited perfect visible light photocatalytic activity for MO degradation, achieving a high kinetic constant of 0.2916 min−1, which was a 6.1-fold and 4.7-fold enhancement compared to pristine Ag3PO4 (0.0478 min−1) and CNNS/Ag3PO4 (0.0616 min−1), respectively. Radical trapping experiments and ESR analysis revealed that the dual-channel charge separation in the Z-scheme heterojunction significantly enhanced electron transfer and molecular oxygen activation. Specifically, the high redox potential of holes in Ag3PO4 and electrons in CNQDs synergistically facilitated organic pollutant oxidation and •O2− generation. In summary, this work not only provided a paradigm for facet-controlled heterojunction design but also extended the application of quantum-confined carbon nitride nanostructures in visible light photocatalytic systems for wastewater treatment.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/w17111594/s1; Figure S1: The cubic phase of Ag3PO4 (JCPDS card no. 06-0505); Figure S2: Influence of solution pH on the photocatalytic degradation of MO by 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4; Figure S3: Photocatalytic degradation of actual dyeing wastewater by 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4; Table S1: Comparison of Ag3PO4-based photocatalysts in MO degradation. References [55,56,57,58,59,60] are cited in the Supplementary Materials.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.Y. and J.W.; methodology, C.W.; software, C.W. and Y.X.; validation, X.Y.; formal analysis, Y.X.; investigation, X.Y. and C.W.; data curation, X.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, X.Y. and Y.X.; writing—review and editing, J.W.; supervision, J.W.; project administration, J.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Water Conservancy Technology Project of Jiangsu province (2022037), the Social development project of Jiangsu province (BE2022771), the Science & Technology Project of Dafeng (DFJH2023044), and the Nanjing University Technology Innovation Fund.

Data Availability Statement

The data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Jinnan Wang was employed by the company Guochuang Low Carbon Technology Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Scheme 1. Preparation process of CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
Scheme 1. Preparation process of CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
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Figure 1. XRD patterns of Ag3PO4 and CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composites.
Figure 1. XRD patterns of Ag3PO4 and CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composites.
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Figure 2. XPS spectra of the 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composite: (a) survey spectrum, (b) C ls, (c) N 1s, (d) O 1s, (e) P 2p, and (f) Ag 3d.
Figure 2. XPS spectra of the 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 composite: (a) survey spectrum, (b) C ls, (c) N 1s, (d) O 1s, (e) P 2p, and (f) Ag 3d.
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Figure 3. SEM images of (a) bare Ag3PO4, (b) 5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, (c) 10%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, (d) 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, (e) 15%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, and (f) 20%CNQDs/Ag3PO4; (g) schematic representation of CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
Figure 3. SEM images of (a) bare Ag3PO4, (b) 5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, (c) 10%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, (d) 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, (e) 15%CNQDs/Ag3PO4, and (f) 20%CNQDs/Ag3PO4; (g) schematic representation of CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
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Figure 4. (a) Photocatalytic degradation of MO over different photocatalysts; (b) kinetic fit for the photocatalytic degradation of MO with different photocatalysts; (c) TOC of MO by CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
Figure 4. (a) Photocatalytic degradation of MO over different photocatalysts; (b) kinetic fit for the photocatalytic degradation of MO with different photocatalysts; (c) TOC of MO by CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
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Figure 5. PL spectra (a), transient photocurrent responses (b), and EIS changes (c) of Ag3PO4, 12.5%CNNS/Ag3PO4, and 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 samples; (d) UV-vis spectra of CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
Figure 5. PL spectra (a), transient photocurrent responses (b), and EIS changes (c) of Ag3PO4, 12.5%CNNS/Ag3PO4, and 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 samples; (d) UV-vis spectra of CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
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Figure 6. (a) Cycling runs of 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4; (b) Ag 3d XPS spectra of 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 before and after 6 recycling runs.
Figure 6. (a) Cycling runs of 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4; (b) Ag 3d XPS spectra of 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4 before and after 6 recycling runs.
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Figure 7. Trapping experiments of the active species for the degradation of MO by 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
Figure 7. Trapping experiments of the active species for the degradation of MO by 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
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Figure 8. DMPO spin-trapping EPR spectra for (a) •OH and (b) •O2−.
Figure 8. DMPO spin-trapping EPR spectra for (a) •OH and (b) •O2−.
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Figure 9. Illustration of the proposed charge mechanism of 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
Figure 9. Illustration of the proposed charge mechanism of 12.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO4.
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Table 1. The pseudo-first-order kinetic rate constants (k) and regression coefficients (R2) of photocatalytic elimination of MO across different photocatalysts.
Table 1. The pseudo-first-order kinetic rate constants (k) and regression coefficients (R2) of photocatalytic elimination of MO across different photocatalysts.
NumberPhotocatalystK (min−1)R2
1Ag3PO40.04780.9918
212.5%CNNS/Ag3PO40.06160.9856
35%CNQDs/Ag3PO40.12670.9985
410%CNQDs/Ag3PO40.16460.9811
512.5%CNQDs/Ag3PO40.29160.9967
615%CNQDs/Ag3PO40.27100.9943
720%CNQDs/Ag3PO40.15480.9962
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Yin, X.; Xiao, Y.; Wu, C.; Wang, J. Visible Light-Driven Z-Scheme CNQDs/Ag3PO4 Octopod-Shaped Nanostructures with Exposed {110} Facets for Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation. Water 2025, 17, 1594. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111594

AMA Style

Yin X, Xiao Y, Wu C, Wang J. Visible Light-Driven Z-Scheme CNQDs/Ag3PO4 Octopod-Shaped Nanostructures with Exposed {110} Facets for Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation. Water. 2025; 17(11):1594. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111594

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yin, Xiaoze, Yuxin Xiao, Chaoyue Wu, and Jinnan Wang. 2025. "Visible Light-Driven Z-Scheme CNQDs/Ag3PO4 Octopod-Shaped Nanostructures with Exposed {110} Facets for Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation" Water 17, no. 11: 1594. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111594

APA Style

Yin, X., Xiao, Y., Wu, C., & Wang, J. (2025). Visible Light-Driven Z-Scheme CNQDs/Ag3PO4 Octopod-Shaped Nanostructures with Exposed {110} Facets for Enhanced Photocatalytic Degradation. Water, 17(11), 1594. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111594

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