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Article

A Study on the Evolution and Interrelation of China’s Reservoir Resettlement Policies over 75 Years

by
Xiaoqing Wu
1,
Jiahua Lu
2 and
Shaojun Chen
1,*
1
National Research Center for Resettlement (NRCR), School of Public Administration, Hohai University, Nanjing 211100, China
2
Zhejiang Design Institute of Water Conservancy & Hydro-Electric Power Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310002, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Water 2025, 17(10), 1444; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101444 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 16 April 2025 / Revised: 26 April 2025 / Accepted: 29 April 2025 / Published: 10 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance)
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Abstract

:
As a pivotal force in the development of hydropower and water conservancy, the evolution of China’s reservoir resettlement policies has garnered significant attention. Over the past seven decades, the nation has made remarkable strides in implementing resettlement initiatives, effectively contributing to poverty alleviation and water resource management. However, emerging challenges, including diminishing opportunities for new reservoir construction, the expiration of post-relocation support policies, and the current emphasis on high-quality development, reveal critical gaps in the existing research. Specifically, macro-level analyses of policy evolution remain scarce, particularly concerning the interrelation between two cornerstone components: land acquisition compensation policies and post-relocation support policies. To address this gap, this paper adopts a holistic historical perspective to analyze the evolution of China’s reservoir resettlement policies across four distinct stages, focusing on the development of two key policies and their interrelations. The findings reveal that each stage of China’s reservoir resettlement policies is characterized by unique thematic priorities, with their interrelations gradually evolving toward greater synergy. Nevertheless, challenges persist, including insufficient per capita farmland allocation and industrial decline in resettlement areas. Accordingly, this paper proposes optimization strategies that encompass policy innovation, multi-stakeholder participation, digital management, and the enhancement of resettlement agencies. China’s experience in fostering policy synergy offers critical insights into institutional evolution while providing valuable references for other countries seeking to refine their reservoir resettlement frameworks.

1. Introduction

Large-scale infrastructure development, as a critical driver of global sustainable development, plays a strategic role in energy supply and regional advancement [1]. Hydropower development, in particular, has garnered significant attention due to its dual functions of ensuring energy security and reducing emissions [2]. As the world’s pivotal force in hydropower installed capacity, China’s contribution has surpassed 60% of the national’s total renewable energy output [3]. By 2023, China had constructed 98,000 reservoirs and dams, resulting in the resettlement of 24.86 million people [4,5]. However, in light of the increasing hydropower demand in developing countries worldwide [6], the rapid and sustainable harnessing of untapped hydropower potential presents both opportunities and challenges [7].
Infrastructure projects, particularly dam construction, displace millions of people annually [8], with estimates suggesting that dam building has displaced between 40 and 80 million individuals globally [9]. Project-induced resettlement is a quintessential form of involuntary displacement [10]. Involuntary resettlement not only leads to overt issues such as secondary poverty and the disintegration of social networks [6,11,12,13,14,15,16], it also triggers social movements and conflicts. Examples include anti-dam protests related to projects on India’s Narmada River [17,18] and struggles at resettlement sites for Vietnam’s Sơn La Hydropower Dam [19]. Scholars have highlighted unfair resettlement practices and inadequate compensation schemes in many countries, including Nigeria, Ghana, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sudan [20,21]. Some research indicates that flawed compensation mechanisms effectively transfer the costs of development onto displaced populations [21,22], while hydropower projects have also been shown to have widespread adverse impacts on the well-being and health of indigenous communities [23].
To mitigate the impacts on immigrants, planned resettlement has become a common policy tool for governments and international organizations aiming to achieve their development and environmental objectives [24]. According to the WCD report, compensation schemes have become increasingly widespread and diverse, incorporating a combination of housing, cash payments, community infrastructure, and land [25]. For example, both China and Vietnam have established resettlement guidelines that emphasize the necessity of at least restoring livelihoods following relocation [26]. Furthermore, China has invested substantial financial and human resources in compensation and follow-up support for resettlement, employing compensation methods that range from monetary to non-monetary, direct to indirect, and short-term to long-term [27]. With advancements in high-quality developments, some scholars have proposed enhancing the social security system [28,29] and providing training in new skills necessary for successful resettlement [30,31].
At this stage, reservoir and dam construction in China has entered a significant contraction phase, with the focus of infrastructure development shifting towards high-quality and sustainable practices. This shift emphasizes the efficient use of resources and environmental protection [32,33]. During this transition, compensation standards have evolved from “in-kind replacement” to a market-based “same place, same price” approach. Additionally, the follow-up support system has established a comprehensive network that includes subsidies, social security, and skills training [27]. This institutional change reflects a paradigm shift in reservoir resettlement governance, moving from an engineering-centric logic to a people-oriented development perspective.
Numerous studies have notably explored factors influencing individuals’ willingness to relocate due to reservoir projects and the outcomes of resettlement. However, there is a lack of comprehensive analyses regarding the overall evolution of policies and the interrelations between them [34,35,36]. This study aims to examine how China’s reservoir resettlement policies and their interrelations have evolved over the past 75 years. Utilizing a longitudinal analytical framework, this research systematically categorizes China’s reservoir resettlement policies into four developmental phases through content analysis: 1949–1990, 1991–2005, 2006–2016, and 2017–present. Content analysis, a scientific method for the in-depth analysis of research subjects [37], can be both descriptive and interpretive, serving to evaluate existing knowledge and enhance understanding of knowledge structures [38,39].
This study addresses the gap in systematic reviews of reservoir resettlement policies. Its contributions include the following: (1) identifying the key themes in the evolution of policy stages and their interrelations; (2) providing insights into the interactive changes between socio-economic contexts and policy making; (3) enhancing the application of policy synergy theory in the evolution of resettlement policies, while encouraging various countries to systematically review their reservoir dam policies; (4) proposing policy recommendations for international reference, thereby offering an actionable framework for governance in alignment with sustainable development goals. The research framework is illustrated in Figure 1.

2. Materials and Methods

This study employs both primary and secondary data sources, including field observations, interviews, existing policies, academic literature, and government summary reports. First, based on field observations and semi-structured interviews conducted from 2021 to 2024 (see Table 1), the study aimed to understand the history and interrelation of reservoir resettlement policies in China. This approach facilitates an understanding of the background and effectiveness of policy making and implementation, allowing for a critical evaluation of China’s reservoir resettlement policies. Second, in 2024, the study summarizes key information from policy texts on reservoir resettlement obtained through official channels and conducts a phase division with reference to the existing literature (e.g., [5]). Third, also in 2024, the study integrates and cross-verifies the research results, literature findings, and policy phases and interrelations. This verification focuses on two aspects: the objectivity and scientific rigor of the research results, ensuring alignment with mainstream academic findings; determining whether the phase division accurately reflects the actual conditions. The references for this process include academic sources such as publicly published books, authoritative reports, library databases, and electronic resources, as well as non-academic materials such as local statistical yearbooks and government policy documents (see Table 2).
This study categorizes the reservoir process into four distinct phases: 1949–1990, 1991–2005, 2006–2016, and 2017–present. For the findings for the first three phases, the results are primarily derived from the existing literature and interviews. In contrast, the fourth phase focuses on summarizing current challenges and proposing optimization strategies for high-quality development. This phase is informed mainly by investigations conducted at reservoir sites, resettlement villages, and the implementation of follow-up support projects.

3. Results

3.1. Initial Attention to Resettlement Issues from 1949 to 1990

“Early reservoir resettlement in China was primarily driven by practice, with issues arising from the process leading to the development of policies”.
Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, reservoir projects have been developed on a large scale, as illustrated in Figure 2. World Bank data indicate that, between 1950 and 1989, the number of resettlers due to reservoir construction in China reached 10.2 million people [8,40]. From 1949 to 1990, the nation constructed significant water conservancy projects, including the Guanting Reservoir (1951–1954), the Xin’anjiang Reservoir (1957–1960), the Danjiangkou Water Conservancy Hub (1958–1973), and the Gezhouba Project (1970–1988) [5,41]. This wave of construction drew considerable attention to resettlement issues within both society and academia, prompting a shift in resettlement practices from simple compensatory relocation to more developmental approaches [29].

3.1.1. “Emphasizing Projects over Resettlers”—Land Acquisition Compensation Policies and Practices

In the early years of China, water conservancy and hydropower projects flourished, and the land compensation system entered a foundational period. The “Railway Reserved Land Measures”, issued in 1950, marked the beginning of standardized land requisition practices. Initially, land requisition and resettlement costs accounted for only about 5% of the total investment in water conservancy and hydropower projects [29,42]. The 1953 “State Construction Land Requisition Measures” established uniform compensation standards for various projects, including those related to water conservancy and defense, based on 3 to 5 years of land output value. This standard was adjusted to 2 to 4 years in 1958 and remained in effect until the early 1980s. Following the reform and opening-up period, numerous large-scale projects, such as the Gezhouba and Longyangxia hydropower stations, were initiated, resulting in the relocation of over 3.6 million people [29]. As the planned economy transitioned to a market economy, land management systems underwent significant changes.
“The 1980s marked a pivotal period for reservoir resettlement issues, coinciding with significant rural reforms such as the land contract system, which heightened land demand and exacerbated human-land conflicts”.
The implementation of the rural production responsibility system significantly increased productivity and made land compensation a central issue [43]. The 1982 “State Construction Land Requisition Regulations” raised compensation standards to 3 to 6 times the output value and introduced a resettlement allowance system with a maximum compensation cap. The 1986 “Land Management Law of the People’s Republic of China” further elevated the maximum compensation standard and mandated special resettlement plans for large and medium-sized water conservancy and hydropower projects. The revised version of this law in 1988 continued these provisions. Given China’s unique land system, market environment, and social development in comparison to Western countries, China adopted the yield multiplier method for compensation [44]. From 1949 to 1990, compensation standards for land requisition in large and medium-sized water conservancy and hydropower projects were aligned with those of other construction projects, adhering to the principle of “same land, same price”). During this period, the concept of productive resettlement was first established through regulation, reflecting a legal recognition of the rights of resettlers. Reservoir resettlement efforts gradually became more standardized and legally regulated [28].

3.1.2. “Handling Remaining Issues”—Background and Practices of the Post-Relocation Support Policy

“Issues related to reservoirs provided formed the context for developing follow-up support policies and remained a central focus of policy efforts for an extended period”.
From the 1960s to the 1970s, a strong “project-priority” approach led to the neglect of the complexities associated with resettlement efforts in water conservancy and hydropower projects. As a result, many resettlers fell into poverty, frequently returning to their original homes, which exacerbated social tensions. A significant number of historical legacy issues accumulated during this period [29]. Survey data indicate that, from 1949 to the early 1980s, approximately 10 million reservoir resettlers were displaced nationwide, with over one-third experiencing substantial difficulties in both production and daily life [45]. In response, the 1981 “Notice on Extracting Reservoir Maintenance Funds from Hydropower Station Generation Costs” mandated the allocation of funds derived from power generation revenues. These funds were then utilized to maintain reservoirs and address legacy issues related to resettlement, marking the formal inclusion of legacy issue resolution within the policy framework. Subsequent policies introduced in 1985 and 1986 emphasized the development and construction of reservoir areas, reflecting a shift in policy focus from relief to development. These policies not only effectively addressed legacy issues concerning reservoir resettlers but also provided valuable practical experience for subsequent support mechanisms, thereby establishing a solid institutional foundation for the formal introduction of follow-up support policies.

3.1.3. “Loose Separation”—The Interrelations Between the Two Policies

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the government adopted a strategy prioritizing industrial development to rapidly establish its industrial system, with agriculture providing financial and material support to industry. In this context, the number of reservoir resettlers was relatively small in the early years, and compensation was primarily in kind, reflecting the principle of “equivalent exchange” [5]. However, as the resettlement population expanded, resettlement issues became more pronounced, characterized by inadequate planning, low compensation standards, and insufficient follow-up support. These challenges resulted in limited development prospects for resettlers, particularly in the case of large and medium-sized reservoirs. During this period, there was a prevalent tendency to “emphasize projects over resettlement” and “focus on relocation while neglecting resettlement”. Following the reform and opening-up policies, the government began to address legacy issues related to resettlers and gradually aligned its practices with international standards [41]. At the regulatory level, land requisition procedures and compensation methods were progressively clarified [5]. Furthermore, the “development-oriented resettlement” policy was proposed and validated through projects such as the Three Gorges Project, Geheyuan, and Wuqiangxi. Development-oriented resettlement policies encompass a variety of forms, including skills training, social security, benefit sharing, land reservation for resettlement, long-term compensation, and entrepreneurship assistance [46].
Before 1991, large and medium-sized reservoir construction projects followed the same land acquisition compensation and assistance standards as other infrastructure projects, such as railways and highways. This period is often referred to as the “same land, same price” era. To address the legacy issues associated with reservoir resettlement, the state primarily implemented a “fire-fighting” policy, focused on specific problems. These measures were not directly connected to previous compensation and assistance policies, exhibiting a loose and separate characteristic.

3.2. Attempts at Policy System Construction from 1991 to 2005

Between 1991 and 2005, numerous large and medium-sized reservoirs were constructed [29,47], displacing over 2 million individuals [41], as illustrated in Figure 3. By the end of 2000, China’s hydropower capacity had reached 77 GW, making it the world’s second-largest producer of hydropower [47]. In this context of rapid development, the Chinese government issued the “Regulations on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement for Large and Medium-sized Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects” (State Council Order (1991) No. 74) in 1991 [48]. As China’s first specialized regulation for reservoir resettlement, it proposed a development-oriented policy that combined initial compensation with long-term production support. This represented a shift towards a more legalized and scientifically informed policy framework for resettlement.

3.2.1. “Formal Standardization”—Land Acquisition Compensation Policies and Practices

To address the escalating conflicts between rural communities and land use, the “Regulations on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement for Large and Medium-sized Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects” (State Council Order No. 74, 1991) [48] were enacted in accordance with the “Land Management Law of the People’s Republic of China” [41]. These regulations established compensation standards for land requisition related to reservoir construction: land compensation is set at 3 to 4 times the average annual output value of the three years preceding the requisition, while assistance for the resettlement of the agricultural population is determined at 2 to 3 times, with a combined total not exceeding 8 to 20 times. These regulations provided a legal framework for compensation and resettlement in large and medium-sized water conservancy and hydropower projects until 2006 [42].
During this period, policies gradually matured as the land requisition system became more standardized, institutionalized, and scientifically informed [29]. For instance, the 1996 “Planning and Design Specifications for Reservoir Submergence Handling in Hydropower Projects” and the 2003 “Design Specifications for Land Acquisition and Resettlement in Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects” were introduced. At the local level, projects such as the Hunan Langjiang Hydropower Station, the Guangxi Rongcheng Hydropower Station, and the Guangdong Duping Hydropower Station explored long-term monetary compensation methods for resettlement, offering more flexible options for those displaced [5]. Meanwhile, from 1991 to 2004, land acquisition compensation for railways, highways, and other projects adhered to the “Land Management Law”. In July 2005, policies mandated that the eastern region develop comprehensive land pricing by district, with the central and western regions also advancing related initiatives. This marked the beginning of the formulation and implementation of district-based land prices for railways, highways, and other projects.
During this period, compensation standards displayed a characteristic of different prices for the same land. Large and medium-sized water conservancy and hydropower projects followed State Council Order No. 74, which established relatively low compensation standards. In contrast, infrastructure projects such as railways and highways adhered to the “Land Management Law”.

3.2.2. “From Material to People”—Exploration and Practice of the Post-Relocation Support Policy

Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, poverty among reservoir resettlers has been a significant policy concern. The 1991 “State Council Order No. 74” first introduced the concept of development-oriented resettlement, specifying a 5- to 10-year period for post-relocation production support [40]. In 1996, a post-project support fund was established, providing CNY 250 to 400 per person per year. That same year, the “Central Committee’s Decision on Solving Rural Poverty” incorporated the poverty alleviation of resettlers into the national anti-poverty strategy. In 2002, policies were enhanced to address historical issues related to central reservoirs through a surcharge on electricity (up to CNY 0.002 per kWh), resulting in a fund of CNY 1250 per person per year. These policies reflect the state’s transition from prioritizing projects over resettlers to adopting a people-oriented development approach.
Here, we take the Three Gorges Project as an example. The post-relocation support policies implemented during this period demonstrated significant people-oriented care. As the world’s largest hydropower dam, the Three Gorges Project plays a crucial role in flood control, power generation, shipping, and water supply [49,50]. To facilitate smooth resettlement, the State Council issued the “Regulations on Relocation for the Three Gorges Project” along with multiple support measures. Financial resources, such as the Three Gorges Reservoir Area Post-Relocation Support Fund, the Three Gorges Reservoir Area Resettlement Special Fund, and the comprehensive support framework established by the Industrial Development Fund, reflect the state’s deep concern for reservoir resettlers. This transformation not only addressed historical issues but also provided a “development-oriented resettlement” solution for large-scale water conservancy projects worldwide.

3.2.3. “Complementary Isomorphism” of the Two Policy Interrelations

In February 1991, China introduced its first special regulation on resettlement for water conservancy and hydropower projects, providing a legal framework that elevated the importance of resettlement in relation to project execution. This regulation established the principle that resettlement is at least as critical as the construction of the projects themselves. Since then, resettlement issues have significantly influenced the planning and implementation of water conservancy and hydropower initiatives, marking a new phase in the approach to resettlement. In 1994, the state issued the “Notice on Establishing a Post-Project Support Fund for Hydropower Stations and Reservoir Areas”, which allocated funds from hydropower generation costs to address the living difficulties and development needs of resettlers. This policy design demonstrated complementary and cohesive characteristics, with post-project support compensating for inadequate prior compensation and ensuring long-term well-being following physical resettlement.
This “complementary and homologous” policy design reflected a transitional governance logic: it retained the compensation framework from the planned-economy era while tentatively introducing market-based mechanisms. However, this duality resulted in insufficient compensation and inefficient support during implementation. Despite these challenges, the policy explorations during this stage laid the groundwork for the 2006 policy, facilitating a paradigm shift from compensatory poverty alleviation to development-oriented resettlement policies.

3.3. Policy Standardization—Reorientation from 2006 to 2016

In 2006, China’s reservoir and hydropower project resettlement policies underwent a significant transformation. The State Council issued the “Regulations on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement for Large and Medium-sized Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects” (Decree No. 471 of The State Council) [51], which raised the standards for land requisition compensation and further standardized resettlement procedures. Simultaneously, the State Council released the “Opinions on Improving the Post-Relocation Support Policy for Large and Medium-sized Reservoir Resettlement” (Guofa (2006) No. 17) [52], which established a 20-year post-relocation support period and clarified funding sources and implementation methods. These policy changes marked a shift from a focus on single compensation to a more comprehensive support system, signaling a move toward more standardized policies.

3.3.1. “Relatively Low Compensation Standards”—Land Acquisition Compensation Policies and Practices

In 2006, Decree No. 471 of The State Council [51] increased the combined compensation for land requisition and resettlement assistance to 16 times. This adjustment summarized 15 years of implementation experience from State Council Order No. 74 and addressed new requirements for integrated urban–rural development and the establishment of a harmonious society.
In 2015, the central “No. 1 Document” policy proposed aligning land acquisition compensation balances for major water conservation and supply projects with the policies governing railways and other national infrastructure projects. This policy was finalized in 2017; however, discrepancies in implementation persist. Meanwhile, the technical standards system for resettlement has been enhanced. For instance, the 2007 revision of the “Planning and Design Specifications for Reservoir Submergence Handling in Hydropower Projects” expanded to include eight standards. The 2009 “Design Specifications for Land Acquisition and Resettlement in Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects” policy was divided into four distinct standards. Additionally, in 2014, the Ministry of Water Resources issued the “Design Specifications for Reservoir Bed Clearance in Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects” policy. These improvements provided a more scientific foundation for resettlement.
Despite improvements in compensation standards, compensation for those displaced by reservoir projects still lags behind that provided for those displaced by railway and highway development. Typically, district-based comprehensive land prices or calculations based on the amended Land Management Law result in higher compensation in these sectors. This phenomenon of different prices for the same land reflects an inconsistent policy framework and underscores the need for further reform.

3.3.2. “Formal Establishment”—Post-Relocation Support Policies and Practices

In 2006, China’s reservoir resettlement policy reached a significant milestone. The State Council issued the “Opinions on Improving the Post-Relocation Support Policy for Large and Medium-sized Reservoir Resettlement” document (Guofa (2006) No. 17) [52], which established a long-term support mechanism lasting 20 years, providing CNY 600 per person per year. This policy unified key elements of support and marked a transition from short-term resettlement to long-term development. Following its implementation, the state enhanced support in three key ways: first, by expanding the funding scale—between 2006 and 2013, a total of CNY 114.5 billion was invested nationally, averaging CNY 14.3 billion annually, with 75% sourced from special support funds; second, by diversifying funding sources to include surplus funds for the first time; and third, by clarifying a development-oriented approach through the 2015 notification, which emphasized poverty alleviation, the construction of beautiful homes, and industrial support. These changes represented a shift from mere subsistence security to the protection of development rights.
Within the policy framework, local areas actively explored innovative approaches. For capacity building, targeted interventions such as entrusted and order-based vocational training significantly enhanced the employability of resettlers. In asset returns, certain reservoir areas underwent reforms by converting resources into assets and funds into share capital, enabling individuals to benefit from shared development dividends. Overall, the post-relocation support policy evolved from temporary relief measures to institutionalized arrangements, establishing a long-term framework spanning 20 years.

3.3.3. “Coupled Development”—The Interrelations Between the Two Policies

In 2006, China’s reservoir resettlement policies experienced a significant turning point with the implementation of Decree No. 471 of The State Council [48] and Guofa (2006) No. 17 [52], which jointly advanced the standardization and synergy of land acquisition compensation and post-relocation support. Compensation standards were increased to 16 times, while post-relocation support introduced a 20-year mechanism (providing CNY 600 per person per year) to address compensation shortfalls. This combined approach to compensation and support aimed to meet immediate needs and ensure long-term resettlement development through institutional assistance. However, compensation for people displaced by land requisition related to reservoir projects remained lower than that for people displaced by railway and highway construction, resulting in a “different prices for the same land” phenomenon and underscoring the need for uniform standards.

3.4. High-Quality Development Since 2017

Since 2017, policies regarding water and ecological protection in reservoir areas have become more stringent, placing a greater emphasis on high-quality development and improving the living conditions of resettlers. This is illustrated in Figure 4. Firstly, policies aiming to standardize the rectification of hydropower stations—such as ecological restoration and the elimination of outdated production capacities—have resulted in a reduction in the number of hydropower stations from 47,498 to 41,114 since 2017. Secondly, policy designs now prioritize the deep integration of compensation and support. The State Council has revised the “Regulations on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement for Large and Medium-sized Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects” (Decree No. 679 of the State Council) [53] document to align post-relocation support policies with the rural revitalization strategy. This has led to the establishment of an integrated support system that encompasses resettlers’ livelihood recovery, capacity building, and social integration.

3.4.1. “Completely the Same Price for the Same Land”—Land Acquisition Compensation and Subsidy Policies and Practices

“Compared to other projects, the standards for reservoir compensation were low for an extended period, resulting in significant demands from resettlers and prompting the subsequent introduction of regional comprehensive land prices”.
“Only in 2017 did reservoir compensation achieve ‘same land, same price’ with other projects”.
In May 2017, the State Council revised the “Regulations on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement for Large and Medium-sized Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects”. This revision established the principle of “same land, same price” principle for large and medium-sized reservoirs, aligning compensation standards with those of infrastructure projects such as railways. This marked a new era of equitable compensation and systematic support for reservoir resettlers, addressing inconsistencies in sector-specific compensation standards and ensuring equal treatment through legal guarantees. Furthermore, it signifies a governance shift from “policy favor” to “rights protection”. The 2019 revision of the “Land Management Law” further reinforced this direction by stipulating that land acquisition compensation must preserve farmers’ original living standards and ensure long-term livelihoods, thereby strengthening the legal foundation for reservoir resettlement compensation and support.
As China’s core policy for reservoir resettlement, the ongoing revision of these regulations has paralleled the development of the water conservancy and hydropower sectors. This process also reflects the evolution of the reservoir resettlement policy system from its initial establishment to its current refinement. These policy adjustments have facilitated a comprehensive shift from compensatory poverty alleviation to development-oriented resettlement, while also providing a systematic solution for global water conservancy projects. Moving forward, it is essential to enhance the dynamic adjustment of compensation standards, deepen participatory governance for resettlers, and establish long-term mechanisms that integrate ecological compensation with industrial support.

3.4.2. “Continuous Improvement”—Post-Relocation Support Policies and Practices

Since 2015, China’s post-resettlement support policies for people displaced from reservoir areas have evolved from a focus on poverty alleviation to an emphasis on industrial support and project management, resulting in a policy framework that aligns with various stages of development. In 2015, the “Notice on Further Strengthening Post-Resettlement Support for Large and Medium-sized Reservoir Resettlement” highlighted the need for enhanced support with the aim of alleviating poverty and promoting the construction of aesthetically pleasing communities. Over time, these policies have become increasingly targeted and effective. Given the limited per capita farmland in reservoir regions, ensuring sustainable livelihoods and improving the well-being of resettlers remain key priorities.
Interviews highlight the sacrifices made by the resettlers of the Three Gorges, who left their homes and who presently face limited access to farmland. As a result, many have sought employment outside their villages or have engaged in small-scale farming. Some individuals have even embarked on new ventures, such as opening internet cafes, as illustrated in Figure 5. For instance, the Zhejiang provincial government regularly monitors the integration and income disparities between resettlers and local residents.
In 2018, the “Ministry of Water Resources Notice on Further Strengthening Post-Relocation Support for Large and Medium-sized Reservoir Resettlement” policy stated that such support is essential for rural development. It prioritized poverty alleviation for resettlers, industrial upgrading, and initiatives for entrepreneurship and training.

3.4.3. “Synergetic Development”—The Interrelations Between the Two Policies

A comparison of the number of resettlers and policy outputs over the years reveals that, while the number of reservoir resettlers surged, no specialized legal framework was in place, as illustrated in Figure 6. Over time, land requisition and post-relocation support policies were introduced, optimized, and systematized, gradually becoming more standardized and synergetic, as shown in Table 3 and Table 4. Despite no fundamental changes in the key characteristics of land acquisition for large and medium-sized reservoirs, post-relocation policies have become increasingly important in promoting sustainable development and ensuring social harmony. These policies, tailored to the specific needs of reservoir resettlers, provide comprehensive support through systematic governance and development-oriented assistance, fostering sustainable community harmony. Notably, post-relocation and pre-relocation compensation policies together form the two pillars of resettlement, demonstrating high practical synergy and collectively advancing resettlement efforts.
Since 2017, China has made significant strides in high-quality reservoir resettlement efforts. Key policies have enhanced land acquisition compensation and post-relocation support. However, there remains room for improvement in post-relocation projects, particularly in project management and asset supervision [54]. Moving forward, China should refine its policies, strengthen project and asset management, and better protect the rights of resettlers to promote economic and social development in both reservoir areas and resettlement regions.
Table 3. The evolution of land acquisition compensation policies.
Table 3. The evolution of land acquisition compensation policies.
StageYearPolicy NameCompensation Fee for Requisitioned FarmlandResettlement SubsidyRemark
Same land, same price1953Measures for Land Requisition for National ConstructionLand expropriation compensation, 3–5 times
1958Measures for Land Requisition for National ConstructionLand expropriation compensation, 2–4 times
1982Regulations for Land Requisition for National Construction (Decree No. 80 of The State Council) [55]Land expropriation compensation, 3–6 timesResettlement fee, 2–3 timesThe total amount of compensation and resettlement subsidies for land expropriation shall not exceed 10 times.
1986Land Management Law of the People’s Republic of ChinaLand expropriation compensation, 3–6 timesResettlement fee, 2–3 times; the maximum must not exceed 10 timesThe total amount of compensation and resettlement subsidies for land expropriation shall not exceed 20 times.
1988Land Management Law of the People’s Republic of China (Amended)Land expropriation compensation, 3–6 timesResettlement fee, 2–3 times; the maximum must not exceed 10 timesThe total amount of compensation and resettlement subsidies for land expropriation shall not exceed 20 times.
Same land at different prices1991Regulations on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement for the Construction of Large and Medium-Sized Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects
(Decree No. 74 of the State Council) [48]		Land expropriation compensation, 3–4 timesResettlement fee, 2–3 timesThe total amount of compensation and resettlement subsidies for land expropriation shall not exceed 20 times.
1998Land Management Law of the People’s Republic of China (revised)Land expropriation compensation, 6–10 timesResettlement fee, 4–6 timesThe total amount of compensation and resettlement subsidies for land expropriation shall not exceed 30 times.
2004Decision of The State Council on Deepening Reform and Strict Land Administration
(Guofa (2004) No. 28) [56]		Under the comprehensive land price system for districts, the compensation fees for land expropriation shall be determined by the provincial people’s governments (block pricing may be applied for non-reservoir resettlement).Block price is proposed for the first time.
2004Land Management Law of the People’s Republic of China (Amended)Land expropriation compensation, 6–10 timesResettlement fee, 2–3 times; the maximum must not exceed 10 timesThe total amount of compensation and resettlement subsidies for land expropriation shall not exceed 30 times.
2004Guiding Opinions on Enhancing the Compensation and Resettlement System for Expropriated Land
(Land Resources Development (2004) No. 238) [57]		Where conditions permit, the provincial land and resources department, in collaboration with the relevant departments, may establish a comprehensive land price for the county (or city) levy area within the province.
2005Notice on the Formulation of Unified Annual Output Value Standards for Land Requisition and the Collection of Comprehensive Land Prices for Regional Plots
(Land Resources Development (2005) No. 144) [58]		Comprehensive land pricing for the eastern region should be established. In the central and western regions, the suburbs of large and medium-sized cities and other areas with suitable conditions should also actively promote the development of comprehensive land pricing for their districts. Additionally, other regions may establish standardized annual output value criteria for land requisition.
Same land at different prices2006Regulations on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement for the Construction of Large and Medium-Sized Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects
(Decree No. 471 of The State Council) [51]		The total amount of compensation and resettlement subsidies for land expropriation is 16 times.
2013Decision of the State Council on Repealing or Amending Certain Administrative Regulations
(Decree No. 638 of the State Council) [59]		Regulations on Land Compensation and Resettlement for the Construction of Large and Medium-Sized Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects
(Decree No. 471 of The State Council) [51]
The first paragraph of Article 51 is amended		The sum of compensation and resettlement subsidies for land expropriation is 16 times.
20152015 Central Document No. 1For the construction of major water-saving and water-supply conservancy projects, the policies of land expropriation compensation and arable land compensation should align with those established for major national infrastructure projects, such as railways.The sum of compensation and resettlement subsidies for land expropriation is 16 times.
Same land, same price2017Regulations on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement for the Construction of Large and Medium-Sized Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects
(Decree No. 679 of the State Council) [59]		The compensation for land expropriated for the construction of large and medium-sized water conservancy and hydropower, as well as the resettlement fees, shall align with the compensation standards established for land utilized in railway and other infrastructure projects.Same land, same price.
Table 4. The evolution of post-relocation support policies.
Table 4. The evolution of post-relocation support policies.
StageYearPolicy NameAdjustment TargetAdjustment CharacteristicsAdjustment Content
Handling remaining issues1981Notice Regarding the Withdrawal of the Reservoir Area Maintenance Fund from the Power Generation Costs of Hydropower Stations
(81 Electronic Finance No. 56) [60]		Clarify the source, management, and scope of use of the fund, utilizing it for future production recovery while gradually addressing the remaining issues in certain reservoir areas.For the first time, the legacy of resettlement legacy is addressed.The maintenance fund for the reservoir area shall be established.
1985Measures for the Verification, Collection, and Administration of Water Charges for Water Conservancy ProjectsFor reservoirs facing ongoing issues, the water fee may be allocated to the reservoir resettlement assistance fund to support resettlers in developing their production capabilities.Propose resettlement assistance.Establish funds for resettlers in reservoir areas to assist them in developing productive activities.
1986General Office of the State Council Forwards the Ministry of Water Resources and Electric Power’s Report on Urgently Addressing the Issue of Reservoir Resettlement
(Guobanfa (1986) No. 56) [61]		Act swiftly to address outstanding issues, provide further clarification on the guidelines for reservoir resettlement efforts, assist resettlers in restoring and enhancing their production capabilities, and explore new avenues for production development.Focused on the resolution of the outstanding issues concerning the central government’s direct reservoir resettlers prior to 1985.Clarify the methods of post-relocation support for resettlers. Follow a development-oriented approach to resettlement. Establish a resettlement assistance fund for reservoir area inhabitants.
1986Notice on Increasing the Construction Fund for Reservoir Areas (Finance and Industry No. 151 (1986)) [62]Increase the reservoir area construction fund.The extraction standard has increased fourfold compared to 1981.The extraction standard for the construction fund of the directly affiliated hydropower station reservoir areas is set at CNY 0.004 per kilowatt-hour.
From material to people1991Regulations on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement for Large and Medium-Sized Hydropower Projects (State Council Order No. 74) [48]Strengthen management practices, expropriate land judiciously, and ensure proper resettlement for displaced individuals.For the first time, the administrative regulation explicitly outlines post-relocation support.The state promotes and supports developmental resettlement by implementing a strategy that combines initial compensation and subsidies with support after relocation.
1996Notice on the Establishment of a Subsequent Support Fund for Hydropower Stations and Reservoir Areas (Jijianshe (1996) No. 526) [63]Clarify the scope of use, extraction timeline, and related management of the support fund. Adjust policies and standards for post-relocation assistance. Enhance the efficiency of fund utilization.Establish a post-relocation support fund.Regulations for implementing unified support policies and standards include a controlled allocation of CNY 250–400 per resettler per year. These regulations also establish uniform criteria for the amount and duration of fund extraction for hydropower stations commissioned after 1986.
2002Several Opinions on Accelerating the Resolution of Residual Issues Concerning Centrally-Administered Reservoir Resettlers (Guobanfa (2002) No. 3) [64]Accelerate the resolution of outstanding issues related to the resettlement of individuals affected by centrally administered reservoirs that were commissioned before the end of 1985.Agree to increase the collection standard for the reservoir area construction fund to CNY 1250 per person, with local matching funds, over a period of six years.Regulations stipulate that resettlement support funds must not be distributed or subsidized to individuals. Furthermore, the central government has established a construction fund for reservoir areas to address the legacy issues faced by reservoir resettlers.
Formal establishment2006Opinions on Enhancing the Post-Relocation Support Policy for Resettlement of Large and Medium-Sized Reservoirs (Guofa (2006) No. 17) [52]In the short term, it is essential to address the basic needs and food security of individuals resettled from reservoir areas, as well as tackling the significant issues related to inadequate infrastructure in both reservoir and resettlement areas.
Medium–long-term goals include strengthening the infrastructure and ecological environments in reservoir and resettlement areas, improving the living and production conditions of resettlers, and promoting economic development.		Representative document for the post-relocation support policy.The standards for post-relocation support standards have been enhanced; they now offer an annual subsidy of CNY 600 per person. Additionally, the duration of support has been clearly defined.
2006Regulations on Land Acquisition Compensation and Resettlement for Large and Medium-Sized Hydropower Projects (Decree No. 471 of The State Council) [51]Aiming to ensure that the living standards of the resettled population meet or exceed their original levels.The state implements a development-oriented resettlement policy that combines initial compensation, subsidies, and post-relocation support.Clarify the methods of initial compensation, subsidies, and subsequent production support.
2015Notice on Further Strengthening the Post-Relocation Support Work for Large and Medium-Sized Reservoir Resettlement (Fagainongjing (2015) No. 426) [65]Increase the intensity of post-relocation support efforts, expedite the resolution of poverty alleviation, actively promote the development of attractive communities for resettlers, and prioritize enhancing the income levels of resettlers to address the long-term development challenges in reservoir areas and resettlement zones.Representative document for improving the post-relocation support policy.Proposing the development of a poverty alleviation and hardship resolution plan for reservoir resettler, with a focus on increasing the income levels of those affected.
Continuous improvement2018Notice from the Ministry of Water Resources on Further Enhancing the Post-Relocation Support for Large and Medium-Sized Reservoir Resettlement (Water Resettlement Document No. 208 (2018)) [66]The post-resettlement support for those displaced by large and medium-sized reservoir resettlement is a crucial aspect of addressing rural issues.Representative document for enhancing the post-relocation support policy.Vigorously advance poverty alleviation and hardship relief initiatives for reservoir resettlers, actively promote the upgrading and development of industries, and prioritize strengthening entrepreneurship and employment training for these individuals.

4. Discussion

The evolution and implementation of China’s reservoir resettlement policies demonstrate the government’s capability and commitment to addressing complex issues. This evolution reflects a transition from fragmented governance to synergetic development, and from compensatory poverty alleviation to development-oriented resettlement, as illustrated in Figure 7. Furthermore, this progression reveals dynamic policy adaptation and a dedication to social equity and sustainable development. (1) In the early stage, policies were primarily focused on engineering needs, employing simple compensation mechanisms that lacked systemic design. This resulted in low compensation standards and weak foundations for long-term development. (2) The turning point in 1991 came with the issuance of the State Council’s Order (1991) No. 74 [48], which marked a significant shift towards the legalization of and scientific approach toward resettlement support, underscoring the importance of legal frameworks. (3) The turning point in 2006 came with the introduction of Decree No. 471 of The State Council [51] and Guofa No.17 [52], which established a comprehensive policy framework that integrated initial compensation with long-term support, thereby creating lifecycle coverage for resettlement. (4) In 2017, the “Same Land, Same Price” policy was instated to standardize compensation across sectors, ensuring equitable treatment for those affected by resettlement and enhancing the fairness of policies.
Similar to China, the evolution of Vietnam’s land requisition legal framework has exhibited distinct phases. Since 1993, this framework has undergone significant improvements, particularly with the introduction of the 2003 Land Law and the 2010 Prime Ministerial Decision, which granted greater rights to land users and established stricter compensation standards. However, in recent years, inadequate compensation and poor relocation planning have led to numerous appeals and protests, undermining citizens’ trust in the political system [67]. In contrast, investigations and interviews reveal that the primary challenge facing our country lies in the following areas: First, there are limited per capita farmland resources and inadequate livelihood opportunities for resettlers. As illustrated in Figure 8, interviews indicate that some resettlers rely on public welfare positions, while others depend on processing materials from external sources or working away from their hometowns, resulting in unstable income sources. Second, there is a phenomenon of industrial hollowing out in reservoir areas. Both reservoir and relocation areas lack sustainable industrial support, leading to limited employment opportunities and insufficient economic development momentum for resettlers. Third, issues of formalism in post-relocation support projects and inadequate fund supervision persist. Some projects fail to adequately address the actual needs of individuals, resulting in poor implementation outcomes and even instances of fund misappropriation and encroachment. For example, to meet quarterly assessments, some localities resort to simplistic solutions, such as leasing or purchasing commercial housing, which undermine transparency in project revenue distribution and adversely affect the interests of resettlers.
In response to these ongoing issues, the present study presents the following recommendations. First, we must improve and innovate policies by optimizing compensation and assistance standards to better reflect market values. It is essential to incorporate a consideration of the medium–long-term perspectives for the livelihoods of those being relocated [68]. Moreover, the present study suggests an exploration of diversified support methods. Second, it is important to encourage enterprises, social organizations, and the public to participate in reservoir projects. Examples of such approaches include leveraging the industrial efficiency of enterprises, introducing social capital, and promoting green and ecofriendly industrial development methods to create more opportunities for resettlers. Third, it is important to empower stakeholders through technology and digital transformation. For example, stakeholders could be encouraged to utilize big data, cloud computing, and other technological tools to establish a digital management platform for entire project lifecycles. Such an approach would enhance the efficiency and precision of resettlement efforts through intelligent applications while reducing corruption and waste. Fourth, this study recommends the establishment of a robust relocation supervision structure [69]. This could involve the formation of a governance framework led by the government, managed locally, which involves the participation of resettlers in post-relocation support projects.
Despite the present study’s efforts, several limitations persist. While this study has aimed for a comprehensive analysis of policy evolution and interrelations, the factors related to these policies have not been thoroughly examined; for example, the influences of local cultural differences and changes in governance institutions within the context of policy backgrounds have not been addressed in detail. Additionally, as a qualitative study, it provides references for further exploration that can be conducted through quantitative research in the future.

5. Conclusions

This study provides a comprehensive review of the 75-year historical evolution of China’s reservoir resettlement policies. It analyzes the interrelations and characteristics of this policy evolution and reveals trends in policy synergy. The findings indicate that these policies have progressed from initially addressing resettlement issues to establishing a cohesive policy system; then, these policies have moved toward standardization, ultimately achieving high-quality development. Each phase of the policies has been closely linked to the socio-economic context of its time, effectively adapting to and driving societal progress. In terms of policy interrelations, there has been a shift from an early “loosely separated” state to “complementary isomorphism” and “coupled development”, finally culminating in “synergetic development”. This evolution reflects the continuous improvement of the policy system, which not only focuses on resolving immediate issues but also emphasizes long-term development and well-being. The synergy among policies has enhanced the overall effectiveness of the policy system, better protecting the legitimate rights and interests of reservoir resettlers while also promoting the coordinated development of reservoir areas and resettlement regions.
However, it is important to note that, despite the significant achievements that have been made in reservoir management, challenges such as insufficient per capita arable land, industrial decline in reservoir areas, and formalism in some follow-up support projects persist. These issues must be addressed through continuous policy improvements and innovations. This research presents an international case study on China’s reservoir resettlement policies, offering valuable insights for other countries in designing and optimizing sustainable development policies for reservoir areas and resettlement regions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.W. and S.C.; Methodology, X.W.; Formal analysis, X.W.; Investigation, J.L.; Resources, J.L.; Writing—original draft, X.W.; Writing—review & editing, J.L. and S.C.; Supervision, J.L. and S.C.; Project administration, S.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Key Research Project of the National Foundation of Social Science of China: Community Governance and Post-Relocation Support in Cross District Resettlement, funding number “21&ZD183” and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities: Study on the Coordinated Development of Sustainable Livelihood and Ecological Protection of Relocated Farmers, funding number ”B240207032”.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

Jiahua Lu is employed by Zhejiang Design Institute of Water Conservancy & Hydro-Electric Power Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Water 17 01444 g001
Figure 1. Research framework.
Figure 1. Research framework.
Water 17 01444 g001
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Figure 2. Representative reservoir construction maps for 1949–1990. Note: The base layer of the map is sourced from the National Geographic Information Public Service Platform (https://map.tianditu.gov.cn accessed on 15 April 2025), which is unmodified. The icons indicate the provinces where key reservoirs are located. During this period, the representative reservoirs included the Guanting Reservoir, Foziling Reservoir, Shimantan Reservoir, Jingjiang Flood Diversion Project, Xin’anjiang Reservoir, Sanmenxia Hydropower Station, Liujiaxia Hydropower Station, Shisanling Reservoir, Miyun Reservoir, Danjiangkou Reservoir, Gezhouba Dam, Panjiakou Reservoir, Wujia Du Hydropower Station, Longyangxia Hydropower Station, Geheyuan Hydropower Station, Tongjiezi Hydropower Station, Dongfeng Hydropower Station, Wuqiangxi Hydropower Station, and Manwan Hydropower Station.
Figure 2. Representative reservoir construction maps for 1949–1990. Note: The base layer of the map is sourced from the National Geographic Information Public Service Platform (https://map.tianditu.gov.cn accessed on 15 April 2025), which is unmodified. The icons indicate the provinces where key reservoirs are located. During this period, the representative reservoirs included the Guanting Reservoir, Foziling Reservoir, Shimantan Reservoir, Jingjiang Flood Diversion Project, Xin’anjiang Reservoir, Sanmenxia Hydropower Station, Liujiaxia Hydropower Station, Shisanling Reservoir, Miyun Reservoir, Danjiangkou Reservoir, Gezhouba Dam, Panjiakou Reservoir, Wujia Du Hydropower Station, Longyangxia Hydropower Station, Geheyuan Hydropower Station, Tongjiezi Hydropower Station, Dongfeng Hydropower Station, Wuqiangxi Hydropower Station, and Manwan Hydropower Station.
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Figure 3. Representative reservoir construction maps for 1991–2005. Note: Representative reservoirs include the Shuanghe Reservoir, the Shimantan Reservoir, the the Xiaolangdi Reservoir on the Yellow River, the Three Gorges Water Conservancy Hub, the Wuqiangxi Hydropower Station Reservoir, Pubugou Reservoir, Xiluodu Hydropower Station, Zipingpu Water Conservancy Hub, Mianhuatan Reservoir, and Baise Reservoir, among others.
Figure 3. Representative reservoir construction maps for 1991–2005. Note: Representative reservoirs include the Shuanghe Reservoir, the Shimantan Reservoir, the the Xiaolangdi Reservoir on the Yellow River, the Three Gorges Water Conservancy Hub, the Wuqiangxi Hydropower Station Reservoir, Pubugou Reservoir, Xiluodu Hydropower Station, Zipingpu Water Conservancy Hub, Mianhuatan Reservoir, and Baise Reservoir, among others.
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Figure 4. Number of reservoirs and hydropower stations constructed since 2008. Note: The data are sourced from the China Water Resources Bulletin.
Figure 4. Number of reservoirs and hydropower stations constructed since 2008. Note: The data are sourced from the China Water Resources Bulletin.
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Figure 5. Livelihood and income sources before and after the relocation of resettlers from the Three Gorges in Zhejiang province.
Figure 5. Livelihood and income sources before and after the relocation of resettlers from the Three Gorges in Zhejiang province.
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Figure 6. The number of resettlers and policy outputs. Note: Policy data are sourced from the pkulaw website (https://www.pkulaw.com/ accessed on 15 April 2025) and official government sources. The data on resettlers are sourced from the relevant literature and the China Water Resources Bulletin.
Figure 6. The number of resettlers and policy outputs. Note: Policy data are sourced from the pkulaw website (https://www.pkulaw.com/ accessed on 15 April 2025) and official government sources. The data on resettlers are sourced from the relevant literature and the China Water Resources Bulletin.
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Figure 7. The evolution and interrelation of China’s reservoir resettlement policies.
Figure 7. The evolution and interrelation of China’s reservoir resettlement policies.
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Figure 8. Common concerns among various groups.
Figure 8. Common concerns among various groups.
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Table 1. Survey methodology.
Table 1. Survey methodology.
Survey MethodologySurvey PeriodSurvey LocationSurvey ThemeTarget GroupRepresentative Interviews Selected and NumbersMain Interview Question Topics
Field observations and semi-structured interviews2021–2024Zhejiang ProvinceThree Gorges Reservoir;
G Reservoir		① Relevant government authorities;
② Monitoring entity;
③ Reservoir resettlers.		① Three community workers, coded N01–N03;
② Monitoring personnel, coded N04;
③ Two resettlers, coded N05 and N06.		For relevant government authorities and monitoring entities:
1. Standards for land acquisition compensation and the implementation of follow-up support policies.
2. Policies related to the reservoirs from central to local levels.
3. Effectiveness of reservoir policies and the degree of livelihood restoration.
4. Challenges faced by policy implementation agencies during the policy implementation process.
For reservoir resettlers:
1. Livelihood and income sources before and after relocation.
2. Integration into local life, including any challenges faced and requests for government support.
December 2024Jiangxi ProvinceW Reservoir① Relevant government authorities;
② Monitoring entity;
③ Reservoir resettlers.		① Two village heads of resettlement villages, coded N07 and N08;
② Management center, coded N09;
③ Five resettlers, coded N10–N14.
October 2022–October 2024Guizhou ProvinceN Reservoir;
P Reservoir		① Relevant government authorities;
② Monitoring entity;
③ Reservoir resettlers.		Two government-affiliated staff members, coded N15 and N16.
Experts interviewsApril 2024Jiangsu ProvinceReservoir resettlement policy; policy phases;
policy interrelation		2 expertsTwo experts, coded N17 and N18.1. Phases of water conservancy and hydropower relocation.
2. Characteristics and outcomes of reservoir evolution.
3. China’s policy system from land-acquisition- to development-oriented resettlement.
4. Existing problems and directions for improvement in reservoir policies.
April 2024Jiangsu Province2 expertsTwo experts, coded N19 and N20.
May 2024Hubei Province2 expertsTwo experts, coded N21 and N22.
May 2024Hubei Province1 expertOne expert, coded N23.
September 2024Jiangsu Province1 expertOne expert, coded N24.
Table 2. Main sources of secondary data.
Table 2. Main sources of secondary data.
NoData InformationData SourceRespective LinkPublicly Available
1Number of Reservoir Resettlers in ChinaWorld Bank Statistics; Literature;
World Commission of Dams		e.g., https://wbwaterdata.org/; (accessed on 30 October 2024)
https://www.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/9126IIED.pdf (accessed on 30 October 2024)		Yes
2Reservoir Resettlement PoliciesGovernment Official Website;
Policy Statistics Website		e.g., https://www.gov.cn/
(accessed on 30 October 2024);
https://www.pkulaw.com/
(accessed on 1 March 2025)		Yes
3Number of Reservoirs and Hydropower StationsChina Water Resources Bulletinhttp://www.mwr.gov.cn/sj/tjgb/szygb/
(accessed on 3 March 2025)		Yes
4Policy ImplementationLocal provincial and municipal statistical yearbooks;
Local government annual reports		-No
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Wu, X.; Lu, J.; Chen, S. A Study on the Evolution and Interrelation of China’s Reservoir Resettlement Policies over 75 Years. Water 2025, 17, 1444. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101444

AMA Style

Wu X, Lu J, Chen S. A Study on the Evolution and Interrelation of China’s Reservoir Resettlement Policies over 75 Years. Water. 2025; 17(10):1444. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101444

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Wu, Xiaoqing, Jiahua Lu, and Shaojun Chen. 2025. "A Study on the Evolution and Interrelation of China’s Reservoir Resettlement Policies over 75 Years" Water 17, no. 10: 1444. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101444

APA Style

Wu, X., Lu, J., & Chen, S. (2025). A Study on the Evolution and Interrelation of China’s Reservoir Resettlement Policies over 75 Years. Water, 17(10), 1444. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101444

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