Evaluating Nature-Based Solutions for Water Management in Peri-Urban Areas
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Framework
2.2. Case Studies
2.2.1. Brazil—Water and Forest Producers Project
2.2.2. Norway—Kjørbekk Stream
2.2.3. Spain—Besòs River
2.2.4. South Africa—Genius of SPACE (Systems for People’s Access to a Clean Environment)
2.2.5. South Africa—Dwars River
2.2.6. Sweden—Årstafältet
2.2.7. Sweden—Norrtälje
2.3. Application of the Framework to the Case Studies
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Context Stage
3.2. Process and Result Stages
3.3. Lessons Learnt
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dimension | Category | Input/Output Indicators |
---|---|---|
Environmental | Intervention | Number of seedlings planted Number of green roofs implemented Number of roads recovered Area that received the green and blue infrastructure Rate of plants planted survival Area of alien trees cleared Area of active rehabilitation Number of propagules planted Number of pipes installed Greywater water disposal points constructed Vertical wetlands constructed Tree gardens (water filtering sites) constructed Stormwater management (improved road surface with permeable paving) Collection and separation of household solid waste in wheelie bins (compostables, recyclables, non-recyclables) Fabrication of ecomachines (which are water treatment systems using plants and microbes most often housed in a greenhouse) Number of water harvesting structures created and/or restored (e.g., lake, pond, tank) Number and types of watershed structures created and/or restored Number and area of encroachment cleared from water harvesting structures and their network Number and types of nature-based wastewater treatment units installed and/or renovated Location of intervention—individual property or community level Wetlands Permeable paving Water harvesting structures and their network Infiltration facilities Other |
Social governance | Project Management | Driving forces for the NBS project The design of NBS Expertise, skills and knowledge of the involved actors Personal values and attributes that facilitate the NBS process |
Social governance | Governance | Roles and responsibilities of involved actors Power Societal groups’ role in the NBS at the different phases of planning cycle and whether it is top-down or bottom-up |
Social governance | Political support | Political support and commitment to driving, planning and implementation of the NBS Political support and commitment after implementation of the NBS—in maintenance, monitoring, evaluation phases |
Social governance | Cultural awareness or education | Identified societal/cultural values that are incorporated in the planning and designing of NBS Activities/campaigns that are launched to support the socio-cultural approach/values within NBS Identified local knowledge that is incorporated in the planning and designing of NBS Identified awareness and educational programs for system users and relevant societal groups that are associated with the planning cycle processes of the NBS |
Social governance | Working culture | Conflictual/tension/collaborative interaction among actors involved Co-design Joint and integrated authorship of NBS Single/divided ownership of NBS |
Economic | Risk | Non-secure financing |
Economic | Benefit | Possibility for co-financing from other sources |
Economic | Financial Support | Who pays What kind of costs are supported Business model to support private involvement |
Technical | Learning | Integrating the learning outcomes by actors involved and their representative organisations for adjustment of NBS, standardisation, producing guidelines, etc. Integrating the learning outcomes by actors involved and their representative organisations for adjustment of NBS in the existing NBS or new NBS Recommendations by community members |
Technical | Challenges | Challenges like technical uncertainty, hydrology, soil, geology, lack of technical expertise, lack of space or space optimisation |
Dimension | Category | Outcome/Impact Indicators |
---|---|---|
Social | Cultural | Environmental identity Recreational values Cultural values and practices |
Social | Health and well-being | Effects of water quality Effects of water supply |
Social | Improving water-related social values and services | Equitable water access for daily use Water availability for different productive uses Gender equity Crime Social cohesion |
Social | Social learning and institutionalisation | Policies related to NBS |
Social | Threats identified | Lack of legislation, absence from the state |
Social | Opportunities identified | Labour, participatory community |
Environmental | Measures (qualitative/quantitative) showing improvement (augmentation) of water quantity (groundwater, surface water) | Recreational use Aesthetic improvement Social/cultural values for ecosystems and biodiversity Spiritual, symbolic and other interactions with natural environment Tourism (aquatic, farm, Forest) Amount of standing water Depth to groundwater Water Table Level Number of springs recharged Streamflow improved/revived Other surface water bodies revived, e.g., pond, lake Streamflow variation Reduction in groundwater abstraction for human use Soil moisture (green water improvement) Increased water availability Improved groundwater quality Sediment load |
Environmental | Measures (qualitative/quantitative) showing improvement/maintaining of water quality of both surface and groundwater | Turbidity Dissolved oxygen concentration Nutrient (N, P) concentration Cyanobacteria bloom events Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Total coliforms Total nitrogen (Kjehldahl N) Nitrates Nitrite Nitrate & Nitrite combined Ammonium Dissolved inorganic phosphate (PID) Total dissolved phosphates (PTD) Heavy metals (Nickel (Ni), Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn)) Pesticides: Chlorpyrifos µg/L, Diazinon (ng/L), PCE (µg/L), TCE (µg/L) Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) pH Cations SUM(cations): (sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg)) Anions SUM(anions): (carbonates (CO3), bicarbonates (HCO3), chlorides (Cl), Sulfates (SO4), nitrates (NO3)) Total hardness Chlorophyll Oils and greases Salinity: Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chlorides (Cl), Sulfates (SO4), Electric conductivity (20 °C) Electric conductivity (field)” Alkalinity: Bicarbonates (HCO3), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K) Presence of aquatic macrophytes Hormones Antibiotics Surfactants Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Escherichia coli Virus Salmonella Electric conductivity Phytoplankton Algae Colour Biotic Indices of Environmental Quality (IBI) Total Suspended solids |
Environmental | Soil Regulation and Maintenance Services | Soil Permeability Erosion prevention (% bare ground) |
Environmental | Ecosystem Services | Food Water Provisioning Materials Energy Genetic Medicinal Ornamental Water Purification Water Regulation Air Quality Maintenance Soil Quality Maintenance Soil Retention Climate Regulation Pollination Life Cycle Maintenance Biological Control Recreation Science & Education Heritage Aesthetic Symbolic |
Environmental | Enhancing or conserving biodiversity | Diversity Index Composition—aquatic and terrestrial species Presence of bioindicators species—fauna and flora Habitat Connectivity (unitless) Aquatic species richness Percentage of cover native vegetation Benthic organisms Percentage of Invasive exotic vegetation |
Economic | Income and jobs | Income-generating activities created directly/ indirectly Jobs created directly/indirectly Property value Household income |
Economic | Avoided costs | Water treatment costs Fertilizers costs Water supply costs Irrigation costs |
Case Study/ Context Information | Brazil | Norway | South Africa–Genius of Space | South Africa– Dwars River | Spain | Sweden–Årstafältet | Sweden–Norrtälje |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Location | Rio Claro | Skien | Langrug | Pniel | Barcelona | Årstafältet - Stockholm | Norrtälje |
NBS type | Restoration and conservation of degraded land and native vegetation | Planned river opening, landscape alteration and leachate treatment | Green infrastructure (permeable paving, integrated grey water disposal points with tree and herb gardens) | Riparian rehabilitation through alien tree clearing and replanting of indigenous vegetation | Restoration including constructed wetlands and a riverside park | Blue and Green Infrastructure: Water ponds integrated in city parks | Variety of NBS for greywater treatment, e.g., infiltration with/ without biomodule, bio-treatment plant, greywater dam (wetland) |
NBS scale | Local to municipal | Neighbourhood | Local | Neighbourhood | Municipal to National | Local to Regional | Individual property to Neighbourhood |
NBS project phase | Monitoring | Research and development | Monitoring | Monitoring | Monitoring | Planning, conceptual design, detailed design and early construction of the city park and water ponds | Planning, design and monitoring |
Supporting policy considered of relevance | Supporting policies for embarking on NBS include the forest code, the water resources and National Plan for the recovery of Nature Vegetation. | National planning guidelines highlight the importance of considering NBS | Lessons learnt from the NBS demonstration phase were used to facilitate policy learning [53] for other informal networks elsewhere. | At the local level there is the National Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998 through which penalties should be enforced for those who don’t comply with the act (i.e. clearing invasive alien vegetation from their properties). In reality these penalties are poorly enforced. | European Water Framework Directive. National policy related to water quality including criteria for monitoring and evaluating the quality of surface water. Metropolitan support in the form of the proposed Urban Master Plan to enable and create a global green and blue infrastructure, which reinforces ecosystem functions, and functions for public use and leisure. Local via a document that integrates territorial concerns and the different aspects of the area. | The European Water Framework Directive is enforced in Sweden through Environmental Quality Norms (MKN in Swedish) and is written into the Swedish Environmental Act. The regional plan for Stockholm indirectly mentions NBS by highlighting the importance of innovations, green and blue infrastructure, circular and blue green cycles, and using ecosystem services. The Comprehensive plan of Stockholm mentions the intention to implement ecosystem services and green infrastructure. The Stockholm stormwater strategy promotes locally managed stormwater approaches. "A greener Stockholm" is a strategic document that discusses where nature can help with climate change and water issues such as storm water and floods However; the Water Services Act and accompanying documents as well as the Planning and Building Act and the Environmental Code are not coherent in supporting the NBS and stormwater strategy. The political budget sets a framework for NBS possibilities. | EU Water Framework Directive, the Baltic Sea Region Action Plan, the Environmental Code, 2000 enacted by the Swedish Parliament, 1992 Swedish Local Government Act. Though none of them explicitly mention NBS, the need and obligation of property owners to install sustainable solutions for wastewater/greywater treatment is evident. |
Challenge and pressure addressed by the NBS | Water shortage, water is polluted which creates a health threat, reduced property value due to water pressures | Water excess due to climate change and pipes being unable to accommodate, leachate water becoming contaminated as it flows over the disused landfills and threatens water quality, ground stability when re-opening the river is a challenge | Water excess and water quality. Other challenges cited: lack of (and theft of) water related infrastructure, health issues due to water pollution, crime | Water shortage. Other pressures are related to social issues such as litter, drug and alcohol abuse | Water excess due to torrential rains as a result of climate chain. Water shortage as a result of Mediterranean dry conditions. Pollution in the form of moderate eutrophication and mineralisation. | Water excess, flooding risk and pollution of stormwater and run off reaching the recipient. The area is being developed via urbanisation / housing needs and the NBS needs to be able to tackle the increase in water due to more impervious surfaces | Degraded groundwater quality as well as eutrophication of the Baltic Sea caused by discharge of contaminated greywater into nature due to inefficient and/or inoperational decentralized greywater treatment systems. Also, water shortage during summer (dry period) due to over-withdrawal of groundwater. |
Actors involved | Government at the municipal level and civil society. | Government at the municipal and national levels, industry and civil society | Government, industry, civil society, universities, other water related actors | Government, industry, civil society, universities, other water related actors | Government at the regional, municipal and local levels, water related actors, universities, industry and civil society | Government at the municipal, national and local levels, industry and civil society | Private property owners as individuals and collectives, companies producing NBS technologies, entrepreneurs who help install these systems, other private actors, government at municipal and county scales |
Similar projects | One: Rio Claro Amphibians | None | The Water Hub (green infrastructure), Alien Clearing Programmes, Wetlands for water filtration | The Water Hub (green infrastructure), Alien Clearing Programmes, Wetlands for water filtration | None | Yes similar projects in Stockholm | Yes, in other coastal municipalities |
Expected social benefits | Not described | The blue-green corridor is expected to have a positive effect on environmental identify, pathway for walking and cycling to be included along sections of the river, cultural heritage (buildings and monuments) along Kjørbekk, a restoration would be viewed positive, urban flooding can be an issue | Expected to support health and wellbeing through a reduction in runoff of grey water, and resultant reduction in health risk (through water-borne diseases). Job creation through the project was expected to improve gender equality within the community. | Expected to support recreation and well-being by providing an area for relaxing, swimming, walking/hiking, picnicking. Job creation through the project is expected to improve gender equality within the community. | Not described | The NBS are expected to safeguard the water quality and quantity in the recipient Årstaviken. Biodiversity increase in certain areas, added value caused by recreation and social inclusion | Compared to grey infrastructural solutions, NBS have higher aesthetic and recreational value, help maintain physical and mental health (directly and indirectly), and empower users through participation in sustainable environmental stewardship |
Main challenges/barriers for NBS planning and implementation | Legal, financial, technical, political, and societal | Financial and societal | Institutional, financial, technical, and societal (governance) | Institutional, financial, technical, and societal (governance) | Institutional, financial, political, and societal | Institutional, organisational arrangement and technical | Financial, political, and societal (lack of awareness and education) |
Ownership | Public (government), as well as private | Public/government | Public (government), as well as private | Public (government), as well as private | Public/government | Public/government | Private (property owners as individuals or collectives) |
Scale of impacts | Currently local | Regional | Local | Local | Local and regional | Local and regional | Local and regional (Baltic Sea) |
CATEGORY | Inputs/Outputs Indicators | Brazil | Norway | Spain | South Africa—Genius of Space | South Africa—Dwars River | Sweden—Årstafältet | Sweden—Norrtälje |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Interventions | Number of seedlings planted | Y | general description of interventions given rather than specific indicators | |||||
Number of green roofs implemented | ||||||||
Number of roads recovered | ||||||||
Area that received the green and blue infrastructure | Y | Y | ||||||
Survival rate of plants planted | Y | Y | ||||||
Area of alien trees cleared | Y | |||||||
Area of active rehabilitation | Y | Y | ||||||
Number of propagules planted | Y | |||||||
Number of pipes installed | ||||||||
Compliance with health & safety plans? | ||||||||
Greywater water disposal points constructed | Y | |||||||
Vertical wetlands constructed | Y | |||||||
Tree gardens (water filtering sites) constructed | Y | |||||||
Stormwater management (improved road surface with permeable paving) | Y | |||||||
Collection and separation of household solid waste in wheelie bins (compostables, recyclables, non-recyclables) | Y | |||||||
Fabrication of ecomachines | ||||||||
Number of water harvesting structures created and/or restored (e.g., lake, pond, tank) | ||||||||
Number and types of watershed structures created and/or restored (e.g., gabion, checkdam, water absorption trench (WAT), etc.) | ||||||||
Number and area of encroachment cleared from water harvesting structures and their network | ||||||||
Number and types of nature-based wastewater treatment units installed and/or renovated | Y | Y | ||||||
Wetlands | Y | Y | ||||||
Water harvesting structures and their network | ||||||||
Infiltration facilities | Y | |||||||
Other: Reduction of critical water floods | Y | |||||||
Other: Re-meandering of river | Y |
Category | Outcomes/Impacts Indicators | Brazil | Norway | South Africa—Genius of Space | South Africa—Dwars River | Spain | Sweden—Årstafältet | Sweden—Norrtälje |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Measures (qualitative/quantitative) showing improvement (augmentation) of water quantity (groundwater, surface water) | Recreational use | Y | Y | Y | Y | |||
Aesthetic improvement | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Social/cultural values for ecosystems and biodiversity | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Spiritual, symbolic and other interactions with natural environment | Y | Y | ||||||
Tourism (aquatic, farm, Forest) | Y | Y | ||||||
Amount of standing water | ||||||||
Depth to groundwater | Y | |||||||
Water Table Level | Y | Y | ||||||
Number of springs recharged | Y | Y | ||||||
Streamflow improved/revived | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Other surface water bodies revived, e.g., pond, lake | ||||||||
Streamflow variation | Y | |||||||
Reduction in groundwater abstraction for human use | ||||||||
Soil moisture (green water improvement) | ||||||||
Increased water availability | ||||||||
Improved groundwater quality | Y | Y | ||||||
Sediment load | ||||||||
Measures (qualitative/quantitative) showing improvement/maintaining of water quality of both surface and groundwater | Turbidity | Y | ||||||
Dissolved oxygen concentration | Y | |||||||
Nutrient (N, P) concentration | Y | Y | ||||||
Cyanobacteria bloom events | Y | |||||||
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) | ||||||||
Total coliforms | Y | |||||||
Total nitrogen (Kjehldahl N) | ||||||||
Nitrates | Y | |||||||
Nitrite | Y | |||||||
Nitrate & Nitrite combined | ||||||||
Ammonium | Y | |||||||
Dissolved inorganic phosphate (PID) | ||||||||
Total dissolved phosphates (PTD) | ||||||||
Heavy metals: (Nickel (Ni), Lead (Pb), Zinc (Zn)) | Y | |||||||
Pesticides: Chlorpyrifos µg/l, Diazinon (ng/l), PCE (µg/l), TCE (µg/l) | Y | |||||||
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) | ||||||||
Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) | ||||||||
pH | Y | Y | ||||||
Cations SUM(cations): (sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg)) | Y | |||||||
Anions SUM(anions); (carbonates (CO3), bicarbonates (HCO3), chlorides (Cl), Sulfates (SO4), nitrates (NO3)) | Y | |||||||
Total hardness | Y | |||||||
Chlorophyll | ||||||||
Oils and greases | ||||||||
Salinity Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Chlorides (Cl) Sulfates (SO4) Electric conductivity (20 °C) Electric conductivity (field) | Y | |||||||
Alkalinity: (Bicarbonates (HCO3), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K)) | Y | |||||||
Presence of aquatic macrophytes | Y | |||||||
Hormones | ||||||||
Antibiotics | ||||||||
Surfactants | ||||||||
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) | Y | |||||||
E. coli | Y | Y | ||||||
Virus | ||||||||
Salmonella | ||||||||
Electric conductivity | Y | Y | ||||||
Phytoplankton Algae | ||||||||
Colour | ||||||||
Biotic Indices of Environmental Quality (IBI) | Y | |||||||
Total Suspended solids | Y | Y | ||||||
Soil Regulation and Maintenance Services | Soil Permeability | Y | Y | |||||
Erosion prevention (% bare ground) | Y | Y | ||||||
Ecosystem Services | Food | Y | Y | |||||
Water Provisioning | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Materials | Y | Y | ||||||
Energy | Y | Y | ||||||
Genetic | Y | Y | ||||||
Medicinal | Y | Y | ||||||
Ornamental | Y | Y | ||||||
Water Purification | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Water Regulation | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Air Quality Maintenance | Y | Y | ||||||
Soil Quality Maintenance | Y | Y | ||||||
Soil Retention | Y | Y | ||||||
Climate Regulation | Y | Y | ||||||
Pollination | Y | Y | ||||||
Life Cycle Maintenance | Y | Y | ||||||
Biological Control | Y | Y | ||||||
Recreation | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Science & Education | Y | Y | ||||||
Heritage | Y | Y | ||||||
Aesthetic | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Symbolic | Y | Y | ||||||
Enhancing or conserving biodiversity | Diversity Index | Y | Y | Y | ||||
Composition (aquatic and terrestrial species) | Y | Y | ||||||
Presence of bioindicators species (fauna and flora) | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Habitat Connectivity (unitless) | ||||||||
Aquatic species richness | ||||||||
Percentage of cover native vegetation | Y | |||||||
Benthic organisms | Y | |||||||
Percentage of Invasive exotic vegetation | Y | Y |
Category | Inputs/Outputs Indicators | Brazil | Norway | South Africa—Genius of Space | South Africa—Dwars River | Spain | Sweden—Årstafältet | Sweden—Norrtälje |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Project Management (throughout all stages: research and development, planning, pilot study, conceptual design, construction and monitoring) | Driving forces for the NBS project | Y | Y | |||||
The design of NBS | Y | Y | ||||||
Expertise, skills and knowledge of the involved actors | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |
Personal values and attributes that facilitate the NBS process | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |
Governance | Roles and responsibilities of involved actors | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Power | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |
Societal groups’ role in the NBS at the different phases of planning cycle and whether it is top down or bottom up | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | ||
Political support | Political support and commitment for driving, planning and implementation of the NBS | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |
Political support and commitment after implementation of the NBS in maintenance, monitoring, evaluation phases | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |||
Cultural/Awareness or educational | Identified societal/cultural values that are incorporated in the planning and designing of NBS | Y | Y | Y | Y | |||
Activities/campaigns that are launched to support the socio-cultural approach/values within NBS | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Identified local knowledge that is incorporated in the planning and designing of NBS | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Identified awareness and educational programs for system users and relevant societal groups that are associated with the planning cycle processes of the NBS | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Working Culture | Conflictual/tension/collaborative interaction among actors involved | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |
Co-design | Y | Y | Y | Y | ||||
Joint and integrated authorship of NBS | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Single/divided ownership of NBS | Y | Y |
Category | Outcomes/Impacts Indicators | Brazil | Norway | South Africa—Genius of Space | South Africa—Dwars River | Spain | Sweden—Årstafältet | Sweden—Norrtälje |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cultural | Environmental identity | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |
Recreational values | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | ||
Cultural values and practices | Y | Y | Y | Y | ||||
Health and well being | Effects of water quality | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | |
Effects of water supply | Y | Y | Y | |||||
Improving water-related social values and services | Equitable water access for daily use | Y | Y | Y | Y | |||
Water availability for different productive uses | Y | Y | Y | Y | ||||
Gender equity | Y | Y | ||||||
Crime | Y | Y | ||||||
Social cohesion | Y | Y | ||||||
Social learning and institutionalisation | Policies related to NBS | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | ||
Threats identified | Lack of legislation, absence from the state | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | ||
Opportunities identified | Labour, participatory community | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
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Hale, S.E.; Tann, L.v.d.; Rebelo, A.J.; Esler, K.J.; de Lima, A.P.M.; Rodrigues, A.F.; Latawiec, A.E.; Ramírez-Agudelo, N.A.; Bosch, E.R.; Suleiman, L.; et al. Evaluating Nature-Based Solutions for Water Management in Peri-Urban Areas. Water 2023, 15, 893. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15050893
Hale SE, Tann Lvd, Rebelo AJ, Esler KJ, de Lima APM, Rodrigues AF, Latawiec AE, Ramírez-Agudelo NA, Bosch ER, Suleiman L, et al. Evaluating Nature-Based Solutions for Water Management in Peri-Urban Areas. Water. 2023; 15(5):893. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15050893
Chicago/Turabian StyleHale, Sarah E., Loretta von der Tann, Alanna J. Rebelo, Karen J. Esler, Ana Paula Morais de Lima, Aline F. Rodrigues, Agnieszka Ewa Latawiec, Nancy Andrea Ramírez-Agudelo, Elisabet Roca Bosch, Lina Suleiman, and et al. 2023. "Evaluating Nature-Based Solutions for Water Management in Peri-Urban Areas" Water 15, no. 5: 893. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15050893